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ON 

THE LOCOMOTIVE 

y 

International Correspondence Schools 

SCRANTON, PA. 


STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS 
LOCOMOTIVE MANAGEMENT 
BREAKDOWNS 
COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES 


SCRANTON 

INTERNATIONAL TEXTBOOK COMPANY 
A-2 









. (o I 8 


the. library of 

CONGRESS, 

Two Copies Received 

FFB 14 1903 

Copyright Entry 
CLASS ft" XXc, No. 

r n 

COPY B, 


Copyright, 1901,1903, by International Textbook Company. 

flmiuiud t»t G U U n.'im m’ 


Steam, Cylinders, and Valve Gears: Copyright, 1899, by The Colliery Engineer 
Company. 

Locomotive Management: Copyright, 1901, by The Colliery Engineer Company. 
Copyright, 1901, by International Textbook Company. Entered at Stationers’ 
Hall, London. 

Breakdowns: Copyright, 1901, by The Colliery Engineer Company. Copyright, 1901, 
by International Textbook Company. Entered at Stationers’ Hall, London. 
Compound Locomotives: Copyright, 1901, by The Colliery Engineer Company. 


All rights reserved. 


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CONTENTS. 


Steam, Cylinders, and Valve Gears. Section . Page . 

Work and Energy.7 1 

Heat: Effects and Measurement .... 7 8 

Relation Between Heat and Work ... 7 15 

Steam and the Steam Engine.7 16 

Steam.7 16 

Properties of Saturated Steam .... 7 20 

Steam Tables.7 22 

Steam Engine.7 27 

Steam Cylinder.7 28 

Steam Chest and Slide Valve.7 29 

Complete Engine.7 31 

Diagrams of Slide-Valve Engine .... 7 32 

Locomotives.7 36 

Types of Locomotives.7 36 

Details of Engine Construction .... 7 41 

Attaching Boiler to Frames.7 45 

Spring Arrangement .7 46 

Setting Up Wedges.7 54 

Steam-Pipe Connections and Cylinders . . 8 1 

Dome.8 3 

Throttle Valve.8 3 

Steam Pipes.8 10 

Cylinder Saddle and Cylinders .... 8 12 

Cylinder and Steam Chest ...... 8 17 

Driving Gear.8 19 

The Steam Piston.8 20 

Crosshead and Guides ....... 8 27 

Connecting-Rods.8 31 

Keying Up Rods.8 35 

iii 
























IV 


CONTENTS. 


Steam, Cylinders, and Valve Gears .—Cont ’ d . Section . Page . 

Valve Gear .. 8 36 

Eccentric and Strap.3 38 

Link. 3 42 

Rocker.3 44 

Tumbling Shaft. 8 45 

Slide Valve . 8 50 

Events of the Stroke. 8 52 

Allen Valve. 8 62 

Double-Ported Valve. 8 64 

Balanced Valves. 8 66 

Piston Valves. 8 71 

Setting Slide Valves. 8 75 

Locomotive Management. 

Inspection, Care, and Management ... 9 1 

Reporting Work.9 3 

Care of Locomotives.9 4 

Friction, Lubrication, and Lubricants . . 9 4 

Oiling ..9 11 

Packing Boxes .9 12 

Packing Piston Rods and Valve Stems 9 16 

Care of Headlights.9 20 

Necessary Tools for Locomotives .... 9 23 

Duties of Engineer Before Attaching His 

Engine to the Train.9 24 

Starting Trains.9 25 

Climbing Grades.9 27 

Economy in the Use of Steam .... 9 27 

Approaching Stations.9 34 

Making Stops.9 35 

Use of Sand. 9 33 

Running Engines in Cold Weather ... 9 37 

Taking Light Engine Over the Road . . 9 38 

Hot Bearings. 9 39 

Injectors Fail on the Road .9 42 

Throttle-Valve or Dry-Pipe Leaking . . 9 44 

Pounds. 9 45 



























CONTENTS. 


v 


Locomotive Management.— Continued . Section . Page . 

Blows . „.* . . . . 9 47 

Broken Steam Chest. 9 50 

Exhaust Out of Square.9 51 

Failure of Spark-Arresting Devices ... 9 52 

Reverse Lever Caught at Short Cut-Off . . 9 52 

Off the Track . . , 9 53 

Reducing the Force of the Collision ... 9 54 

Breakdowns. 

Breakdowns Common to All Types of 

Engines.9 57 

Disconnecting Rods.9 58 

Blocking Crosshead ..9 61 

Broken Reverse-Lever Reach' Rod ... 9 65 

Broken Link Hanger, Saddle Pin, or Tum¬ 
bling Shaft Arm.9 65 

Broken Rocker-Arm.9 66 

Broken Eccentric Strap or Rod .... 9 67 

Slipped Eccentric .9 68 

Broken Valve Yoke.9 72 

Broken Valve-Stem Stuffingbox Gland 9 74 

Broken Valve Seat.9 75 

Broken False Valve Seat.9 78 

Broken Valve . . '.9 78 

Broken Steam Chest.9 79 

Broken Piston Stuffingbox and Lug of Gland 9 81 

Bent Piston Rod. 9 81 

Broken Cylinder Head.9 82 

Broken Steam Chest and Cylinder ... 9 83 

Broken Main Crankpin.9 83 

Broken Main-Rod Strap.9 84 

Broken Guide.9 85 

Broken Crosshead.9 85 

Broken Lever.9 85 

Throttle Disconnected.9 86 

Hole Knocked in Boiler.9 87 

Pop Valve or Whistle Blown Out ... 9 89 


























VI 


CONTENTS. 


Breakdowns.— Continued . Section . Page . 

Broken Frame .9 91 

Broken Wedge Bolt.9 92 

Broken Driving Box or Brass.9 92 

Broken Axle on Four-Wheeled Engine 

Truck. 9 94 

Broken Tender Truck Wheel.9 95 

Breakdowns Peculiar to Eight-Wheeled 

Engines.9 97 

Mogul Engines.9 106 

Atlantic Type Engines.9 119 

Northwestern Type Engines.9 125 

Ten-Wheeled Engines.9 135 

Consolidation Engines ....... 9 142 

Compound Locomotives. 

Description, Operation, and Operating 10 1 

Prominent Types .10 9 

Baldwin (Vauclain) System.10 11 

Baldwin Two-Cylinder Compound ... 10 34 

Richmond Compound.10 42 

Schenectady Compound.10 60 

Pittsburg Compound.10 70 

Rhode Island Compound.10 78 

Examination Questions. 















STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 


WORK AND ENERGY. 

1. Before taking up the study of locomotive cylinders, 
valves, and valve gears, it is advisable to make a brief study of 
work and energy, heat, temperature, the effects of heat, and the 
relation between heat and work ; also, a study of steam and its 
properties, and of a simple steam engine. A good knowledge of 
these subjects will be of great assistance to the student, not only 
in studying the remainder of this Course, but in his every-day 
work, as he will understand much better the forces under his 
control, and what takes place within his engine. He will 
therefore be better prepared to deal with any emergency that 
may arise. 


WORK. 

2. Force. —In the study of work, a clear conception of the 
difference between force, work, and power should be gained. 

The word force is given to that which produces or tends to 
produce, destroy, or change the direction of motion. It is given 
to any pressure, tension, push, or pull, whether applied directly 
to a body or, like the force of gravity, through an invisible 
medium. 

3. Work. —Work consists in producing, destroying, or 
changing the direction of motion in opposition to a resisting 
force—that is, in moving a body against a resisting force. 
When water is raised from a well, or dirt from a hole in the 
ground, or, in fact, when anything is raised from a lower to a 
higher level, work is done in overcoming the force of gravity. 
In bending a board or in driving a nail into it, the positions of 
some of the molecules of the wood are changed with relation to 
one another, and the work performed by the act, in either case, 



2 STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 

is done in overcoming the resistance which the molecules offer 
to the change. If a sled is drawn over bare ground, work is 
done in overcoming the force of friction which acts between the 
earth and the sled runners, to stop the motion of the sled. 

If we stop and consider the actions that constitute the work 
performed by a man, a horse, or a steam engine, we find that 
motion is an essential element. In raising a stone a man does 
work, since he raises it against the resisting force, gravity ; the 
stone has work done upon it, since it is made to move against the 
action of the force of gravity. If the man were merely to sup¬ 
port the stone in his arms, he would do no work in the sense the 
term is used in mechanics, because, although he supports the 
stone, he does not move it against the action of a resisting force. 

4. Tke Elements of Work. —To do work it is necessary 
to move a body in opposition to a force that tends to prevent 
the movement. Resistance and space , therefore, are essential 
elements of work. A horse in drawing a load does work, the 
amount of which depends on the resistance offered to the 
movement of the load and on the distance it is drawn. The 
amount of work done in raising a pile-driver weight depends on 
the height to which it is raised, and on the resistance (the force 
of gravity) against which it is raised. When the expansive 
force of steam in a steam cylinder forces the piston out, it does 
work, the amount of which depends on the distance (length of 
stroke) through which the force acts and on the resistance 
against which the piston is moved. 

5. Work cannot be done on a body that offers absolutely 
no resistance to the action of the force; neither can a body do 
work unless its motion is resisted by an opposing force. On 
the other hand, whenever a force produces, destroys, or changes 
motion, it does work. 


UNIT OF WORK. 

6. Kinds of Work.— There are many kinds of work, such 
as raising weights, winding up springs, overcoming frictional 
resistances, etc., and, in order to be able to measure and com¬ 
pare different kinds of work, it is necessary to have a common 



STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 


3 


unit of measurement. Now, work, as has been seen, consists in 
producing, destroying, or changing motion against a resistance, 
and, if the same resistance is encountered, the amount of work 
expended in effecting the motion will be the same, regardless of 
whether the motion is vertically upwards or in any other direc¬ 
tion. This being true, it is simply necessary to combine a unit 
of resistance and a unit of space to form a unit of work. One 
unit of resistance is the pound ; a unit of space is the foot; 
therefore, when these units of length and resistance are used, 
the unit of work is called the foot-pound. 

7. Tlie Foot-Pound.— A foot-pound represents the amount 
of work necessary to move a body 1 foot against a resisting force 
of 1 pound. For example, if a 1-pound weight is raised verti¬ 
cally upward 1 foot, 1 foot-pound of work is done ; or, if a 
steady pull of 1 pound is required to move a sled, 1 foot-pound 
of work will be expended in moving it 1 foot. 

8. Amount of Work Performed. —To determine the 
amount of work (in foot-pounds) done in any case, multiply the 
resistance , in pounds , by the distance, in feet , through which the body 
is moved against the action of the resisting force. 

In the case of a locomotive running at constant speed, the 
resisting force is equal to the drawbar pull, for if it were greater 
it would stop the train, and if it were less the speed would con¬ 
stantly increase ; hence, if a locomotive exerts a drawbar pull 
of, say, 17,000 pounds in moving a train, it does 1 X 17,000, or 
17,000 foot-pounds of work for every foot it moves the train ; 
therefore, in traveling 1,000 feet, 1,000 X 17,000 or 17,000,000 
foot-pounds of work will be done on the train. 


POWER. 

9. Power is the rate of doing work. In calculating the 
amount of work done (Art. 8), the resisting force and the dis¬ 
tance the body is moved against it are multiplied together, but 
the time consumed in doing the work is not taken into consideration. 

For example, the amount of work done in raising 500 pounds 
of wheat 2 feet is the same whether it is raised in 1 minute or 



4 


STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 


in 5 hours. A small child could raise the wheat, lifting a little 
at a time, and it would do as much work as the man who could 
raise 100 pounds at a time, .but the 'power of the man, that is, 
the rate at which he is capable of doing work, is evidently 
much greater than that of the child. 

10. Rate of Doing Work.— By rate of doing work is 
meant the amount of work done in a unit of time. To deter¬ 
mine the rate at which work is done, divide the total amount of 
work , in foot-pounds, by the time, in minutes, required to do the work. 

Example. —An engine, while exerting a constant drawbar pull of 
10,000 pounds, travels 12,000 feet in five minutes. At what rate is it 
doing work? 

Solution. —The total amount of work done is 10,000X12,000, or 
120,000,000 foot-pounds. The rate at which the work is done, there¬ 
fore, is 120,000,000 divided by 5, or 24,000,000 foot-pounds per minute. 

Ans. 

11. Horsepower. —The unit of power commonly used to 
express the rate of doing work is called the horsepower. It rep¬ 
resents the ability to do 33,000 foot-pounds of work in 1 
minute. Thus, if a lifting engine can just raise 33,000 pounds 
1 foot in 1 minute, it would be called a 1-horsepower engine. A 
10-horsepower engine can do work at 10 times that rate ; that 
is, it can raise 330,000 pounds 1 foot per minute, 33,000 pounds 
10 feet per minute, or 3,300 pounds 100 feet per minute. 
The word horsepower is generally abbreviated and written H. P. 

12. To determine the rate, in horsepower, at which work is 
done, divide the total quantity of work by 33,000 times the time 
(in minutes). 

Example. —A locomotive, exerting a constant drawbar pull of 15,000 
pounds, moves a train 10,000 feet in 10 minutes. At what rate, in horse¬ 
power, does the engine do work? 

Solution. —The total quantity of work is 15,000 X 10,000, or 150,000,000 
foot-pounds ; the rate in horsepower, therefore, is 

150,000,000 KtTTn . 

33^00X10’ or 455 H - p -’ nearly - Ans - 




STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 


5 


ENTERGY. 

13. Energy is the ability to do work ; in other words, it 
is the ability to produce, destroy, or change motion in opposi¬ 
tion to a resisting force. 

All men and animals possess this power to a greater or less 
degree. The falling weight of a pile driver, a rolling stone, a 
car in motion, in fact, any body of matter in motion, is capable 
of doing work in being brought to rest, and, therefore, possesses 
energy. 

A body in motion possesses energy because of its motion , and 
the greater its velocity , the more energy it possesses. 


KINETIC ENERGY. 

14. Energy due to the motion of a body is called kinetic 
energy , meaning moving or actual energy. The amount of kinetic 
energy a body possesses depends on its weight and on the 
velocity with which it moves. The kinetic energy may be 
calculated, in foot-pounds, by multiplying the velocity of the 
body, in feet per second, by itself, and by the weight of the 
body in pounds, and then dividing this product by 64.32. 

Example.— Suppose a car weighing 40,000 pounds is moving at the 
rate of 10 feet per second ; what energy, in foot-pounds, does it possess? 

Solution. —Since its velocity is 10 feet per second, and its weight 
40,000 pounds, the amount of energy it possesses, at that speed, will be 

^ ^ ° r a ^ ou ^ 62,200 foot-pounds, and the car will do 62,200 

foot-pounds of work in being brought to rest. Had the car been 
moving with a speed of 20 feet per second, it would have possessed 

?6 X . 2Q X 4 0’QQQ, or about 248,800 foot-pounds of energy, or four times 
64. 32 

as much as when traveling at the rate of 10 feet per second. 

POTENTIAL ENERGY. 

15. A body may have no motion, and therefore will possess 
no kinetic energy, yet, by virtue of an advantage in its position, 
it may possess energy of another form. 

For instance, a pile-driver weight has no energy and can do no 
work while it is simply resting on the ground, and when held 







6 STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 

aloft it appears to be just as devoid of energy. That it possesses 
energy when in the latter position, however, can very readily be 
proved by allowing it to fall. In fact, there is a great difference 
between the weight resting on the ground and the weight 
suspended in the air : in the former position it can do no work; 
in the latter it can, and its energy, or ability to do work, in the 
latter case, is due simply to its advantage of position. 

16. It will thus be seen that energy may exist in two 
widely different forms. It may exist: (1) as actual motion , as 
in the case of any mechanical motion, or in the invisible 
motions of the molecules of a body ; or, (2) it may exist in a 
stored-up condition, by virtue of the body—as in the case of a 
raised pile-driver weight—or its molecules—as in the case of 
a compressed spring—occupying a position or positions of 
advantage. This stored-up energy is called potential energy. 


TRANSFORMATION OF ENERGY. 

IT. Energy in one form may be transformed into energy 
of any other form. A good illustration of transforming, or 
changing, kinetic energy into potential energy, and then retrans¬ 
forming it into kinetic energy again, is given in the following : 

Suppose a stone to be thrown straight up in the air. It 
starts with its greatest velocity (and, therefore, with its greatest 
amount of kinetic energy), which, as the stone rises, gradually 
decreases until the stone has attained its greatest height, when 
the velocity is all spent. For an instant, before starting down¬ 
ward, the stone is at rest and, therefore, for that instant it 
possesses only potential energy. The kinetic energy with which 
the stone started was all spent, or used up, in raising the stone 
to its position of advantage, by virtue of which it possesses its 
potential energy. In falling, this potential energy is gradually 
spent in increasing the velocity of the stone, and, therefore, its 
kinetic energy, until, on reaching its starting point, the stone 
has regained the same amount of velocity, and, therefore, of 
kinetic energy, it had on starting upivards. 

At the instant of beginning and ending its flight the stone 
contains only kinetic energy ; during its flight it contains both 


STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 


7 


kinetic and potential energy. The potential energy increases 
and the kinetic energy decreases as the stone rises, while, as it 
falls, the kinetic energy increases and the potential energy 
decreases. During every instant of the stone’s flight, the sum 
of its kinetic and potential energies is constant, and energy is 
neither created nor destroyed, but is simply transformed from 
one form to another. 

18. A pound of coal has a certain amount of potential 
energy. When the coal is burned, this energy is liberated and 
changed into kinetic energy in the form of heat. The kinetic 
energy of the heat changes water into steam, which thus has a 
certain amount of potential energy. The steam acting on the 
piston of a steam engine causes it to move and overcome a 
resisting force, thus changing the potential energy into kinetic 
energy, and doing work. 

CONSERVATION OF ENERGY. 

19. The principle of conservation of energy teaches that 
energy, like matter, cannot be destroyed, and that the total 
quantity in the universe remains constant. If a clock is put in 
motion, the potential energy of the spring is changed into the 
kinetic energy of motion, which turns the wheels, thus producing 
friction. The friction produces heat, which is carried away by 
the surrounding air; but still the energy is not destroyed—it 
merely exists in another form. 


HEAT: EFFECTS AND MEASUREMENT. 

HEAT. 

20. Heat is a form of energy ; it is a kind of motion of the 
molecules composing matter. These molecules are never at 
rest, but are constantly moving to and fro, bumping and jostling 
one another in much the same manner as a swarm of bees. It is 
this movement of the molecules that produces the sensations of 
warmth and cold. If the motion is rapid, the body feels warm 
or hot; if it is slow, the body feels cold to the touch. 




8 STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 


TEMPERATURE. 

21. Temperature is a term used to indicate how hot or how 
cold a body is, that is, to indicate the rate of vibration of the 
molecules of a body. A hot body has a high temperature ; 
a cold body, a low temperature. When a body receives heat 
from any source its temperature rises ; on the other hand, 
when a body loses heat its temperature falls. 

22. Temperature Not a Quantity. —Temperature does 
not mean the same as quantity of heat, and the quantity of heat 
a body possesses cannot be determined from its temperature. 
For instance, a cup of water may have a temperature of 212° F., 
yet it does not possess nearly the quantity of heat that a pail of 
water at 50° F. does. Again, the cup of water may be at a 
lower temperature than the water in the pail, in which case it 
will neither have the temperature nor the quantity of heat of 
the latter. 

Temperature may be considered to be a measure of the velocity 
of the molecules of a body as they move to and fro, while 
quantity of heat may be considered to be the energy of the 
molecules composing the body. 

23. Measurement of Temperature. —Temperature is 
measured by means of an instrument called a thermometer , one 
type of which is shown in Fig. 1. It consists of a glass tube, 
closed at both ends, having a bulb at the lower end. The bulb 
and the lower end of the tube are filled with mercury, which, 
on being heated or cooled, expands or contracts in proportion to 
the change of temperature. This expansion or contraction 
causes the highest point of the mercury column to rise or fall, 
and, since equal changes of temperature make the mercury 
column rise or fall equal distances, the graduations on the scale 
are made equal throughout. 

24. Combination Thermometer.— In Fig. 1 is shown a 
combination thermometer, that is, one which has two scales. 
The one on the left, marked F, in combination wfith the glass 
tube, forms a Fahrenheit thermometer (so named after its 




STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 


9 


inventor) which is the one commonly used ; the scale on the 
right, marked (7, in combination with the glass tube, forms a 
centigrade thermometer. The centigrade thermometer is used by 
scientists throughout the world on account of the graduations 
being better adapted for calculations. 

25. Graduating a Thermometer.— The graduations on 
the scale of a thermometer are obtained as follows : 

First, the thermometer is placed in melting ice, and 
the point to which the mercury column falls is 
marked and called the freezing point; it is next 
placed in steam which is escaping from an open 
vessel, and the point to which the mercur}^ rises in 
the tube is marked and called the boiling point. 

These are two fixed points ; that is, the mercury 
column will always register these same points when 
the thermometer is placed in broken ice or in steam, 
under the conditions explained above. 

26. Freezing* Point and Boiling Point. 

The freezing point marks the temperature at which 
water freezes and forms ice, or at which ice melts 
and forms water under atmospheric pressure, since 
water freezes and ice melts at exactly the same 
tern perature. 

The boiling point marks the temperature at which 
water boils and forms steam when subjected to 
atmospheric pressure. 

Having these two fixed points, the distance 
between them is divided into equal parts, the num¬ 
ber of divisions depending on whether the scale is 
for a Fahrenheit or a centigrade thermometer. 

27. Fahrenheit Thermometer. —The Fah¬ 
renheit thermometer is made by dividing the distance between 
the freezing and the boiling point on the scale into 180 equal 
divisions, called degrees. The freezing point is marked 32, and 
the boiling point 212 ; 32 divisions are marked off from the 
freezing point downwards, and the lowest one is marked 0. 
This is called the zero point of the scale. The graduations may 



Fig. 1. 










10 STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 

be extended above the boiling point, or below the zero point, 
as desired. 

28. Instead of writing the word degrees after each reading 
of temperature, it is customary to represent it by a symbol—a 
small circle placed above and to the right of the figures. Also, 
the word Fahrenheit is usually represented by the letter F. 
Thus, 32° F., means the same as though it were written 
“32 degrees Fahrenheit,” and 8°F., the same as “ 8 degrees 
Fahrenheit.” In this thermometer there are 212 divisions, or 
degrees, between the zero point and the boiling point. 

29. Centigrade Thermometer. — In the centigrade 
thermometer, the freezing point is marked 0, and the boiling 
point 100, the distance between the two being divided into 
100 equal divisions. As in the Fahrenheit scale, the divisions 
can be carried above the boiling point and below the zero point. 
The word centigrade is usually abbreviated and written C., as 
10° C., 28° C., etc. 

30. Thermometer Readings. —Beginning with 0°, the 
divisions on both the Fahrenheit and centigrade scales are 
numbered 1, 2, 3, 4, etc., both above and below the zero point. 
Therefore, in giving the lower readings of a thermometer, it is 
necessary to state the number of degrees and whether they are 
above or below zero. 

To distinguish temperatures below zero from those above, 
the sign of subtraction is always placed .before the former. 
Thus, 12° means 12° above zero on both scales, while —12° 
means 12° below zero. 

31. Absolute Temperature.—The freezing point was 
chosen as the zero point of the centigrade scale. Fahrenheit 
placed the zero point of his thermometer 32° below the freezing 
point, as that was the lowest temperature he could obtain, and 
he supposed that it was impossible to obtain a lower one. 
From the results of experiments and from calculations, how¬ 
ever, it has been concluded that at 460° F. below zero, or 492° 
F. below the freezing point, there is absolutely no heat. This 
is therefore called the absolute zero, and all temperatures reckoned 


STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS, 


11 


from this point are called absolute temperatures. Absolute zero 
has never been reached, the lowest recorded temperature being 
in the neighborhood of — 400° F. 

32. Reckoning; Absolute Temperature. — Absolute 
temperature may be reckoned either on the Fahrenheit or on 
the centigrade scale. Between 0° absolute and 0° F. there are 
460 Fahrenheit degrees ; between 0° absolute and the freezing 
point there are 460 + 32, or 492° ; while between 0° absolute 
and the boiling point there are 460 -f 212, or 672°. Between 
0° absolute and 0° C. there are 273J centigrade degrees. 

33. Absolute and Fahrenheit Temperature. —If the 
absolute temperature of a body is given, its temperature on the 
ordinary Fahrenheit thermometer can be found by subtracting 
460 from the absolute temperature. If the absolute tem¬ 
perature is less than 460, subtract it from 460, and the result 
will be the temperature below zero on the Fahrenheit thermometer. 

The absolute temperature of a body may be found from its 
Fahrenheit temperature, by adding 460 to it, when the ther¬ 
mometer reading is above zero; if the thermometer reading is 
below zero, subtract the reading from 460. 

34. Absolute and Centigrade Temperature. —To find 
the absolute temperature of a body from its centigrade temper¬ 
ature, add the centigrade temperature to 273J when it is above 
zero, and subtract it from 273J when below zero. Thus, 60° C. 
= 273J + 60, or 333£° absolute; — 10 C. = 273J — 10, or 
263J° absolute. 

To find the centigrade temperature of a body from its abso¬ 
lute temperature, subtract 273J from the absolute temperature. 
Thus, 300° absolute — 300 — 273J, or 26§° C. 

If the absolute temperature is less than 273J, subtract the 
absolute temperature from 273J, and the result will be the 
centigrade temperature below zero. Thus, 250° absolute = 2731r 
— 250, or 23C. below zero. 

35. Changing From Centigrade to Fahrenheit. —It 
is frequently necessary to change from one scale to the other; 
For example, what would 80° C. be on the Fahrenheit scale ? 




12 STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 


Since the number of degrees between the freezing point and 
the boiling point on the centigrade scale is 100, and on the 
Fahrenheit 180, 1° F. will equal C. = f° C. Likewise, 
1° C. will equal F. = |° F. 

Rule. —Multiply the centigrade temperature by f and add 32; 
the result is the Fahrenheit temperature . If, however , the given tem¬ 
perature is below zero and its product by f is greater than 32 , 
subtract 32. The result is the Fahrenheit temperature below zero. 

Example.— What will be the reading of a Fahrenheit thermometer if 
a centigrade thermometer indicates a temperature (a) of 100° C. ? (6) of 
-40° C. ? 

Solution. —(a) Applying the rule, 100 X f = 180 ; 180 -f 32° = 212° F. 
Ans. (6) 40 X f = 72. Since the given temperature is below zero and 
its product by f is greater than 32, — 40° C. = 40 X I — 32 = 40° F. 
below zero. Ans. 

36. Changing From Fahrenheit to Centigrade.—To 
change Fahrenheit temperatures to their centigrade values. 

Rule.—(a) If the given Fahrenheit temperature is 32° or greater , 
mbtract 32 from it; (6) if between 0° and 32 °, subtract it from 32; 
(c) if below 0 °, add. 32 to it. The result multiplied by f will be the 
centigrade temperature. The results in the cases of (b) and (c) will 
be below zero. 

Example. —What will be the reading on a centigrade thermometer 
if a Fahrenheit thermometer indicates a temperature (a) of 60° F. ? 
(b) of 20° F. ? (c)of— 20° F. ? 

Solution. —(a) Applying the rule, 60 — 32 = 28 ; 28 X f = 15|° C. 
Ans. (6) 32 — 20= 12; 12 X t = 6§° C. below zero. Ans. (c) 20 
+ 32 = 52 ; 52 X § — 281° C. below zero. Ans. 


EFFECTS OF HEAT. 

37. Effecting a Rise of Temperature. — Suppose a 
cylinder A B , Fig. 2, fitted with a piston P, and half filled with 
water at a temperature of 30° F., be placed on a fire. Heat will 
be communicated to the water and will increase the velocity of 
its molecules ; that is, their kinetic energy will increase, and if 
a thermometer is placed in the water it will indicate a rise of 
temperature. One effect of heat, therefore, is to raise the temper¬ 
ature of the body to which it is applied. 







STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 


13 


38. Expansion of Bodies. —After a certain temperature 
is reached, the molecules not only move faster but they separate 
farther from one another, and their paths are longer. Since the 
molecules are farther apart, it follows that the 
water must occupy more space than formerly, 
or, in other words, it expands. This expan¬ 
sion will be indicated by the piston P rising 
as the water is heated. Another effect of 
heat, therefore, is to expand bodies to which it 
is applied. 

The tires on locomotive drivers are turned 
up to a tight fit, and are then expanded by 
the application of heat until they will go on. 

On cooling they contract again, and grip the 
wheel very firmly. The rails of a railway are 
considerably longer in summer than in winter, 
due to expansion caused by the increase in 
temperature. 

Generally, the greater part of the heat given 
to a body is spent in raising its temperature, and but little goes 
to expand the body. 


■ 

— 


II p 


■ 




- 



Fig. 2. 


39. Suppose the piston, Fig. 2, is now removed from the 
cylinder, and a thermometer suspended in the water. As heat 
is applied to the cylinder the thermometer will show a gradual 
rise in temperature until 212° F. is reached, after which the 
temperature will remain constant, no matter how much heat is 
applied. Before 212° F. was reached, most of the heat was 
spent in raising the temperature of the water, and but little in 
increasing the distance between its molecules. Afterward, 
however, all the heat is used in overcoming the attraction of the 
molecules for one another, and in separating them so far that 
they no longer attract, but actually repel one another. In 
other words, the heat is used in changing the water into a vapor 
called steam. 


40. Changing Solids to Liquids or Liquids to Gases. 
If a block of ice at a temperature lower than 32° F. be heated, 
its temperature will rise until 32° F. is reached, when it will 












14 


STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 


remain stationary. The ice will then begin to melt and the 
heat applied to it, instead of increasing its temperature, is all 
used in effecting this change of state. Here, then, is another 
effect of heat. It will change a solid into a liquid , or a liquid into 
a gas or vapor. 


SENSIBLE AND LATENT IIEAT. 

41. That part of the heat which goes to raise the tempera¬ 
ture of a body and, therefore, affects the thermometer, is called 
sensible heat; that which is expended on the molecules of a body 
in changing it from a solid to a liquid, or from a liquid to a 
vapor, but does not affect its temperature, is called latent heat. 


MEASUREMENT OF HEAT. 

42. Heat cannot he measured.directly in pounds or gallons, 
but must be measured by the effects it produces. The usual 
method is to measure the change of temperature it produces in 
a known weight of water. 

UNIT OF IIEAT. 

43. To measure heat there must be a unit of measurement, 
and this unit is called a heat unit , or British thermal unit , or 
.simply B. T. U., which is an abbreviation of the second. 

A heat unit is the quantity of heat required to raise the tem¬ 
perature of 1 pound of water 1 degree Fahrenheit. Thus, 
1 heat unit will raise the temperature of 1 pound of water 
1°F., 2 pounds fF., or 10 pounds -^F. ; 10 heat units will 
raise the temperature of 1 pound of water 10° F., 10 pounds 
1° F., or 20 pounds F. ; etc. 

RELATION BETWEEN HEAT AND WORK. 

44. Suppose the piston, Fig. 2, had been allowed to remain 
in the cylinder while the water was being changed into steam. 
Steam at 212° F. occupies nearly 1,700 times the space that its 
water original^ occupied ; hence the piston would be lifted in 
the cylinder to make room for the steam that was being formed. 




15 


STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 

To raise the piston, however, work must be done. Here, then, is 
an example of work being done by heat. On the other hand, 
work will produce heat. If two blocks of wood are rubbed 
briskly together, they will become warm, and may even ignite 
and burn. The work of friction causes the journals and bear¬ 
ings of fast-running machines to heat, A small iron rod may 
be heated to redness by pounding it on an anvil. The work 
done by the driver brake in holding the engine back on a down 
grade produces heat that heats the tires; and, if the brakes are 
held on for a sufficient length of time, the heat generated will 
expand the tires until they become loose on the driving wheels. 

Since work may be changed into heat, and heat into work, it 
seems probable that some fixed ratio exists between the unit of 
heat and the unit of work. By a careful series of experiments, 
Dr. Joule, of England, discovered this ratio. He found that 
1 unit of heat will do 772 foot-pounds of work ; later and more 
accurate experiments, however, show that 1 heat unit will do 
778 foot-pounds of work. The quantity 778 foot-pounds is 
called the mechanical equivalent of 1 heat unit, or Joule 1 s equivalent. 

Experiment has shown, therefore, that heat can be converted 
into work, or work into heat; that 778 foot-pounds of work, if 
converted into heat, will produce 1 unit of heat, or that 1 heat 
unit will do 778 foot-pounds of work. 


STEAM, A7ND THE STEAM ENGINE. 

STEAM. 

45. Steam is a colorless water vapor ; that is, it is water 
changed into a gaseous state by the application of heat. The 
process of changing water into steam by the application of heat, 
is called ebullition , or boiling. 


THE FOllMATION OF STEAM. 

46. When water is heated in a vessel, the air contained in 
the water is first driven off—some escaping from the surface, 
and some collecting in bubbles on the sides of the vessel. As 



16 STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 

the temperature of the water nears the boiling point, bubbles 
of steam form at the heating surface and rise until they meet 
the upper and cooler portions of the water, when they collapse 
with a slight sound. This sound is produced by the steam 
bubbles condensing, allowing the surrounding water to come 
violently together. The “singing” of a teakettle just before it 
begins to boil is caused by the collapsing of a large number 
of steam bubbles. 

As soon as the upper portions of water become sufficiently 
heated, the bubbles cease to collapse ; they grow slightly larger 
as they rise, and on nearing the surface explode and throw 
small particles of water up into the steam space. This causes 
the violent agitation of the surface of the water known as 
boiling—a sure sign that the water is being converted into 
steam. 


47. Water, then, may be converted into steam by imparting 
heat to it. Steam, on the other hand, may be condensed or 
changed back into water by abstracting heat from it. The latter 
process is called condensing , and the water regained is called 
water of condensation. 


SATURATED STEAM. 

48. The term saturated , when applied to steam, does not 
have the same meaning as when applied to a sponge; that is, 
it is not intended to convey the idea that the steam is saturated 
with water. Steam is called saturated steam when it is at the 
greatest density and pressure corresponding to its temperature, 
under which condition it contains just sufficient heat to main¬ 
tain it in the state of steam. While in this state, any increase 
of pressure or loss of heat will cause some of it to condense. 
This is the condition of steam in a boiler. 

Since saturated steam is in that critical state whereby a slight 
change of pressure or loss of heat will reconvert some of it into 
water, it has not the permanent condition of a true gas, the 
physical state of which is unaffected either by a change of 
pressure or by a loss of heat, or by both. Saturated steam, 
consequently, does not follow the “laws of gases.” 




STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 


17 


49. Temperature of Saturated Steam.— The temper¬ 
ature of saturated steam depends on the pressure only ; that is, 
for every pressure it has a definite temperature, and this 
temperature is always the same as that of the water with which 
it may be in contact. 

On account of this property, the temperature of the steam in 
a boiler may be determined from the steam-gauge reading, or 
the pressure of the steam may be determined from its temper¬ 
ature, provided the relations between temperature and pressure 
are known. These relations have been determined by experi¬ 
ment throughout a wide range of pressures, and are given in the 
Steam Table on page 22. 

SUPERHEATED STEAM. 

50. Superheated steam is steam of any pressure that has a 
temperature higher than the temperature of water from which 
it would be formed at that pressure. 

Saturated steam may be superheated : (1) by separating it 
from water and imparting additional heat to it; or, (2) by 
allowing it to expand without doing work, in which case 
superheated steam at a lower pressure is formed. 

Steam cannot be superheated while in contact with water, 
owing to the fact that any heat added would go to form more 
saturated steam, without affecting the temperature of that 
already formed. Neither can superheated steam exist in the 
presence of water. If too much water is not present, a sufficient 
part of the excess heat of the steam will be used to evaporate 
and superheat it, thereby reducing the excess of heat. If there 
is too much water for the excess heat to evaporate, the steam 
will be reduced to saturation, the superheat being entirely used 
up in converting the water into saturated steam. 

51. Saturated steam is not a true gas, although, as has been 
found by experiment, when superheated about 20° F. it behaves 
very nearly like a true gas. If saturated steam suffers any loss 
of heat, some of it will condense. Superheated steam, on the 
other hand, must lose all of its excess heat before condensa¬ 
tion commences. 



18 


STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 


It is not practicable to use steam that has been superheated 
more than a few degrees, because if superheated to any extent 
it quite vigorously attacks and corrodes the surface of the metal 
with which it comes in contact, both in the boiler and in the 
engine. 


WET AND BUY STEAM. 

52. Steam, unless superheated, always contains more or 
less moisture in the form of minute particles, or spray, mechan¬ 
ically mixed with it. It is the amount of moisture which 
steam contains that determines whether it is to be called 
“wet” or “dry.” Strictly speaking, superheated steam alone 
is dry, since, in practice, saturated steam always contains some 
moisture ; yet the title dry is not applied to the former, but is 
intended to indicate the condition of saturated steam. 

Wet stearin is steam that contains considerable moisture 
mechanically mixed with it in the form of minute spray. 

Dry steam , as the term is generally used, is steam that con¬ 
tains but very little moisture in suspension. In practice, steam 
containing less than three per cent, of moisture is considered 
as dry. 

53. Dry saturated, and superheated steam are colorless, 
while wet steam, owing to the amount of water spray it con¬ 
tains, appears white. The condition of the steam in a boiler, 
therefore, can be judged to some extent by the appearance of a 
jet of steam issuing from a small orifice situated some distance 
above the water in the boiler. 

Superheated steam will be transparent for a couple of inches 
from the orifice, after which it will gradually change to a bluish, 
and then to a grayish-white color, depending on its distance 
from the orifice. 

Dry steam has a very faint bluish color at the orifice, which 
gradually changes to grayish-white as its distance from the 
orifice increases. 

Wet steam has a dense white appearance from the moment it 
leaves the orifice, and its appearance does not change much 
thereafter. 



STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 


19 


WIREDRAWN STEAM. 

54. When steam has its pressure reduced in passing 
through a contraction in a valve, steam port, or steam passage, 
it is said to be wiredrawn , or throttled. Partly closing a steam 
valve or the throttle of an engine, therefore, wiredraws the 
steam passing through it, and the more the valve or throttle is 
closed the more the steam is wiredrawn. 

Wiredrawing steam tends to superheat it; therefore, if the 
steam supplied to an engine is wet, it will often be found 
advisable to wiredraw it by partly closing the throttle. 


PROPERTIES OF SATURATED STEAM. 

55. Saturated steam possesses a number of properties, 
which, when the pressure of the steam is changed, change with 
it. These properties are as follows : 

1. The temperature of the steam. 

2. The heat of the liquid; that is, the number of heat units 
required to raise 1 pound of water at 32° F. to the temperature 
of the steam. 

3. The latent heat of vaporization , or, as it is usually called, 
latent heat. Latent heat was defined in Art. 41. By latent 
heat of vaporization is meant the number of heat units required 
to change 1 pound of water at the boiling temperature into steam 
at the same temperature. 

4. The total heat of vaporization , or, simply, total heat. By 
total heat is meant the number of heat units required to raise 
the temperature of 1 pound of water at 32° F. to the boiling 
point, and to convert it into steam of the required temperature 
and pressure. The total heat is equal to the sum of the heat of 
the liquid and the latent heat. 

5. The specific volume of the steam at the given pressure ; that 
is, the space, in cubic feet, that 1 pound of steam at the given 
pressure occupies. 

6. The density of the steam; that is, the weight of 1 cubic foot 
of steam at the given pressure. 




20 STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS, 


56. Effect of Pressure. —All of the above properties are 
different for different pressures. For instance, if water boils 
under atmospheric pressure, its temperature and the temper¬ 
ature of the steam generated is 212° F.; the heat of the liquid 
is 180.531 heat units ; the latent heat, 966.069 heat units ; the 
total heat, 1,146.6 heat units. A pound of steam at this pressure 
occupies 26.37 cubic feet of space, and a cubic foot of the steam, 


therefore, weighs 


1 

26737’ 


or .037928, pound. 


When the pressure is 70 pounds per square inch above 
vacuum (70— 14.7, or 55.3 pounds gauge), the temperature is 
302.774° F.; the heat of the liquid is 272.657 heat units ; the 
latent heat is 901.629 heat units; and the total heat is 
1,174.286 heat units. A pound of steam at this pressure 
occupies 6.076 cubic feet, and a cubic foot of steam therefore 

weighs or .164584, pound. 


57. The properties of saturated steam have been determined 
by direct experiment for all ordinary steam pressures, and are 
given in the table on pages 22 and 23. 


EXPLANATION OF THE TABLE. 

58. Column 1 . — Column 1 gives absolute pressures 
(see Art. 10, Locomotive Boilers, Part 2) from 1 to 300 pounds. 
These pressures are reckoned from vacuum, and, consequently, 
are 14.69, say 14.7, pounds greater than gauge pressure ; hence, 
in using the Steam Table, care must be taken not to use gauge 
pressures without first adding 14.7 pounds. 

When the gauge registers 0 pound pressure, the corresponding 
absolute pressure is 14.7 pounds. Therefore, all pressures in 
column 1, below 14.7 are less than 0 gauge pressure. For 
example, 14 pounds absolute is about .7 pound below atmos¬ 
pheric pressure and represents nearly 1^ inches of vacuum 
(see Art. 12, Locomotive Boilers , Part 2); 6 pounds absolute 
represents about 18 inches of vacuum, while 1 pound absolute 
represents about 28 inches of vacuum. In other words, 1 pound 




STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 


‘21 


absolute is 1 pound above vacuum , and nearly 14 pounds below 
0 gauge pressure. 

Pressures above 14.7 pounds, on the other hand, are above 
atmospheric pressure, and, consequently, are registered on the 
gauge. For example, a correct gauge, subjected to 20 pounds 
absolute pressure, will register 5.3 pounds; under 30 pounds 
absolute, it will register about 15 pounds, and so on for the 
other pressures. 

59. Column 2. — Column 2 gives the temperatures at 
which water will boil—and, therefore, the temperature of the 
steam generated—when subjected to the corresponding pressure 
in column 1. By comparing columns 1 and 2 it will be seen 
that, as the pressure is increased from 1 to 300 pounds absolute, 
the boiling point increases from 102° F. to 417° F. 

60. Column 3.—Column 3 gives the heat of the liquid 
under the different pressures. For instance, 180.531 heat units 
are necessary to raise the temperature of 1 pound of water at 
32° F. to the boiling point (212° F.) under an absolute pressure 
of 14.69 pounds, and 250.355 heat units to raise it to the boil¬ 
ing point (280.904°) under 50 pounds pressure, absolute, etc. 

It will be noticed that the values in column 3 may be 
obtained, approximately, by subtracting 32 from the corre¬ 
sponding temperature in column 2. If it required exactly 1 
heat unit to raise the temperature of 1 pound of water 1° F. at 
all temperatures, it would, of course, take exactly 212 — 32, or 
180 heat units to raise 1 pound of water from 32° F. to 212° F. 
Experiment, however, shows that above 62° F. an amount 
slightly greater than 1 heat unit is necessary, as will be seen by 
comparing columns 2 and 3. 

61. Column 4.—Column 4 gives the latent heat of the 
steam. By comparing columns 1 and 4 it will be observed that 
the latent heat decreases slightly as the pressure increases. 

62. Column 5.—Column 5 gives the total heat of vapori¬ 
zation. It will be seen that the values in this column may be 
obtained by adding together the corresponding values in col¬ 
umns 3 and 4. 




TABEE of tite properties of saturated steam. 


Pressure Above Vacuum in Pounds 
per Square Inch. 

Temperature, Fahrenheit 

Degrees. 

Quantities of Heat in British 1 
Thermal Units. 

Weight of a Cubic Foot of Steam 
in Pounds. 

Volume. 

Required to Raise Tem¬ 
perature of the Water 
From 32° to the Given 
Temperature. 

Total Latent Heat at the | 
Given Pressure. 

Total Heat Above 32°. 

Of a Pound of Steam in 

Cubic Feet. 

Ratio of Volume of Steam 

to Volume of Equal 

Weight of Distilled 

Water at Temperature 

of Maximum Density. 

1 

2 

3 

-4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

1 

102.018 

70.040 

1,043.015 

1,113.055 

.003027 

330.400 1 

20,623.0 

2 

126.302 

94.368 

1,026.094 | 

1,120.462 

.005818 

171.900 

10,730.0 

3 

141.654 

109.764 

1,015.380 

1,125.144 

.008522 

117.300 

7,325.0 

4 

153.122 

121.271 

1,007.370 1 

1,128.641 

.011172 

89.510 

5,588.0 

5 

162.370 

130.563 

1,000.899 

1,131.462 

.013781 

72.560 

4,530.0 

6 

170.173 

138.401 

995.441 

1,133.842 

.016357 

61.140 

3,816.0 

7 

176.945 

145.213 

990.695 

1,135.908; 

.018908 

52.890 

3,302.0 

8 

182.952 

151.255 

986.485 

1,137.740 

.021436 

46.650 

2,912.0 

9 

188.357 1 

156.699 

982.690 

1,139.389 

.023944 

41.770 

2,607.0 

.10 

193.284 

161.660 

979.232 

1,140.892 

.026437 

37.830 

2,361.0 

11 

197.814 

166.225 

976.050 

1,142.275 

.028911 

34.590 

2,159.0 

12 | 

202.012 i 

170.457 

973.098 

1,143.555 

.031376 

31.870 

1,990.0 

13 

205.929 ! 

174.402 

970.346 

! 1,144.748 

.033828 

29.560 | 

1,845.0 

14 

209.604 

178.112 

967.757 

1,145.869 

.036265 

| 27.580 

1,721.0 

14.69 

212.000 

180.531 

966.069 

1,146.600 

.037928 

26.370 

1,646.0 

15 

213.067 

181.608 

965.318 

! 1,146.926 

.038688 

25.850 

1,614.0 

16 

216.347 

184.919 

963.007 

1,147.926 

.041109 

24.330 

1,519.0 

17 

! 219.452 

! 188.056 

960.818 

1,148.874 

.043519 

1 22.980 

1,434.0 

18 

j 222 424 

1 191.058 

958.721 

1,149.779 

.045920 

21.780 

1,359.0 

19 

225.255 

193.918 

956.725 

1,150.643 

! .048312 

20.700 

1,292.0 

20 

227.964 

196.655 

954.814 

1,151.469 

.050696 

19.730 

1,231.0 

22 

233.069 

201.817 

951.209 

1,153.026 

.055446 

18.040 

1,126.0 

24 

237.803 

| 206.610 

947.861 

1,154.471 

.060171 

16.620 

1,038.0 

26 

242.225 

211.089 

944.730 

j 1,155.819 

.064870 

15.420 

962.3 

28 

246.376 

215.293 

941.791 

1,157.084 

.069545 

14.380 

897.6 

30 

250.293 

219.261 

939.019 

1,158.280 

.074201 

13.480 

841.3 

32 

254.002 

| 223.021 

936.389 

1,159.410 

.078839 

12.680 

791.8 

34 

257.523 

226.594 

933.891 

1,160.485 

.083461 

11.980 

748.0 

36 

260.883 

! 230.001 

931.508 

1,161.509 

.088067 

11.360 

708.8 

38 

V 

264.093 

233.261 

929.227 

1,162.488 

.092657 

10.790 

673.7 

40 

267.168 

236.386 

927.040 

j1,163.426 

.097231 

10.280 

642.0 

42 

270.122 

239.389 

924.940 

1,164.329 

.101794 

9.826 

613.3 

44 

272.965 

242.275 

922.919 

11,165.194 

.106345 

9.403 

587.0 

46 

275.704 

245.061 

920.968 

1,166.029 

.110884 

9.018 

563.0 

48 

278.348 

247.752 

919.084 

1,166.836 

.115411 

8.665 

540.9 


22 























1 

2 

3 

A 

5 6 

7 

8 

50 

280.904 

250.355 

917.260 

1,167.615 .119927 

8.338 

520.5 

52 

283.381 

252.875 

915.494 ! 

1,168.3691 .124433 

8.037 | 

501.7 

54 

285.781 1 

255.321 

913.781 

1,169.102 .128928 

7.756 1 

484.2 

56 

288.111 

257.695 

912.118 

1,169.813! .133414 

7.496 

467.9 

58 

290.374 

260.002 

910.501 

1,170.503 .137892 

7.252 

452.7 

60 1 

292.575 

262.248 

908.928 | 

1,171.176 .142362 i 

. 7.024 

438.5 

62 

294.717 | 

264.433 j 

907.396 

1,171.829 .146824 

6.811 

425.2 

64 

296.805 

266.566 

905.900 - 

1,172.466 .151277 

6.610 

412.6 

66 ! 

298.842 

268.644 

904.443 

1,173.087 i .155721 I 

6.422 

400.8 

68 

300.831 

270.674 

903.020 

1,173.694 .160157 

6.244 

389.8 

70 

302.774 

272.657 

901.629 

1,174.286 .164584 

6.076 j 

379.3 

72 

304.669 

274.597 | 

900.269 

1,174.866 .169003 

5.917 

369.4 

74 

306.526 

276.493 

898.938 1 

1,175.431 .173417 

5.767 

360.0 

76 

308.344 

278.350 

897.635 

1,175,985 1 .177825 

5.624 

351.1 

78 

310.123 

280.170 

896.359 

1,176.529 .182229 

5.488 

342.6 

80 

311.866 

281.952 

895.108 

1,177.060 .186627 

5.358 

334.5 

82 

313.576 

283.701 

893.879 1 

1,177.580 .191017 I 

5.235 

326.8 

84 

315.250 

285.414 

892.677 

1,178.091 .195401 

5.118 

319.5 

86 

316.893 

287.096 

891.496 

1,178.592 .199781 

5.006 

312.5 

88 

318.510 

288.750 

890.335 

1,179.085 .204155 

4.898 

305.8 

00 

320.094 

290.373 

889.196 

1,179.569 .208525 

4.796 

299.4 

92 

321.653 

291.970 

888.075 

1 1,180.045 .212892 

4.697 

293.2 

94 

323.183 

293.539 

886.972 

1,180.511 .217253 

4.603 

287.3 

96 

324.688 

j 295.083 

885.887 

1,180.970 .221604 

4.513 

281.7 

98 

326.169 

296.601 

884.821 

1,181.422 .225950 

4.426 

276.3 

100 

327.625 

298.093 

883.773 

1,181.866 . 230293 

4.342 ' 

271.1 

105 

331.169 

301.731 

881.214 

1,182.945 .241139 

4.147 

i 258.9 

110 

334.582 

305.242 

878.744 

1,183.986 .251947 

3.969 

247.8 

115 

! 337.874 

308.621 

876.371 

1,184.992 .262732 

3.806 

237.6 

120 

341.058 

311.885 

874.076 

1,185.961 .273500 

3.656 

228.3 

125 

344.136 

315.051 

871.848 

i 1,186.899 .284243 

3.518 

219.6 

130 

347.121 

318.121 

869.688 

i 1,187.809 .294961 

3.390 

211.6 

135 

| 350.015 

321.105 

867.590 

1,188.695 .305659 

3.272 

204.2 

140 

352.827 

324.003 

1 865.552 

1,189.555 .316338 

3.161 

197.3 

145 

355.562 

326.823 

863.567 

1,190.390 . 326998 

3.058 

190.9 

150 

358.223 

329.566 

861.634 

1,191.200 .337643 

2.962 

184.9 

160 

1 363.346 

334.850 

857.912 

1,192.762 .358886 

2.786 

173.9 

170 

368.226 

339.892 

854.359 

1,194.251 .380071 

2.631 

164.3 

180 

372.886 

344.708 

850.963 

1,195.671 .401201 

2.493 

155.6 

190 

377.352 

349.329 

847.703 

1,197.032 .422280 

2.368 

147.8 

200 

1 381.636 

353.766 

844.573 

1,198.339 .443310 

| 2.256 

140.8 

210 

385.759 

358.041 

841.556 

11,199.597 .464295 

2.154 

134.5 

220 

389.736 

362.168 

838.642 

1,200.810 .485237 

2.061 

128.7 

230 

393.575 

366.152 

835.828 

1,201.980 .506139 

1.976 

123.3 

240 

397.285 

370.008 

833.103 

1,203.111 .527003 

1.898 

118.5 

250 

400.883 

373.750 

830.459 

1,204.209 .547831 

1.825 

114.0 

260 

404.370 

1 377.377 

827.896 

11,205.273 .568626 

1.759 

109.8 

270 

407.755 

380.905 

825.401 

1,206.306 .589390 

1.697 

105.9 

280 

411.048 

384.337 

822.973 

11,207.310 .610124 

1.639 

102.3 

290 

414.250 

387.677 

820.609 

1,208.286 .630829 

1.585 

99.0 

300 

| 417.371 

390.933 

) 818.305 

1,209.238! .651506 

1.535 

95.8 


23 




























24 STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 

63. Column 6.—Column 6 gives the density or weight of 
a cubic foot of steam, in pounds, under the different pressures. 
As will be noticed, the weight increases with the pressure. The 
reason for this is that a pound of steam is forced to occupy less 
and less space as the pressure is increased (see column 7) and 
thus the amount, and therefore weight, of steam in each cubic 
foot of space increases with the pressure. 

64. Column 7.—Column 7 gives the space, in cubic feet, 
occupied by 1 pound of steam under the different pressures. 
This decreases greatly with the pressure, decreasing from 330.4 
cubic feet at 1 pound absolute, to 1.535 cubic feet at 300 pounds 
absolute. It will be noticed that the corresponding values of 
columns 6 and 7 multiplied together always produce 1. That 
is, for 46 pounds absolute (31.3 gauge),. 11088 X 9.018 = 1, 
nearly. 

65. Column S. ; —Column 8 gives the ratio of the volume 
of 1 pound of steam at the given pressure to the volume of 
1 pound of water at 39.1°F., at which temperature water is 
at its greatest density. The values in column 8 may be 
obtained by dividing 62.425—the weight of a cubic foot of 
water at 39.1° F.—by the numbers in column 6. 

66. In using the table it must be remembered : (1) that 
the pressures in column 1 are absolute pressures, and that, 
consequently, 14.7 pounds must be added to gauge pressure 
before it can be used with the Steam Table ; and (2) that the 
heat of the liquid (column 3), the latent heat (column 4), and 
the total heat (column 5) are calculated from 32° F., and not 
from 0° F. 

EXAMPLES OX THE USE OF THE STEAM TABLE. 

67. Example 1.—Give the values of the different properties of 
saturated steam at 145.3 pounds gauge pressure. 

Solution.— A gauge pressure of 145.3 pounds corresponds to an 
absolute pressure of 160 pounds absolute ; therefore, from the Steam 
Table we find that at 160 pounds absolute the temperature of the steam 
is 363.346° F. ; the heat of the liquid, 334.850 heat units; the latent 
heat, 857.912 heat units ; and the total heat, 1,192.762 heat units. Ans. 


STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS 


25 


Example 2.—Calculate the heat required to change 5 pounds of water 
at 32° F. into steam at 92 pounds pressure above vacuum. 

Solution. —From column 5, the total heat of 1 pound at 92 pounds 
pressure, absolute, is 1,180.045 heat units; therefore, the total heat of 
5 pounds will be 1,180.045X5, or 5,900.225 heat units. Ans. 


Example 3.—How many heat units are required to raise 8? pounds of 
water from 32° F. to 250° F. ? 

Solution. —The heat of the liquid of 1 pound at 250.293° F. is 219.261 
heat units (see columns 2 and 3). Now, since 1 heat unit will raise 
the temperature of 1 pound of water 1°, .293 heat units must have been 
necessary to raise the water from 250° F. to 250.293° F. To find the 
heat of the liquid at 250° F., therefore, subtract .293 from the 219.261 heat 
units. 219.261 — .293 = 218.968 heat units for 1 pound; 81X218.968 
= 1,861.228 heat units for 81 pounds. Ans. 

Example 4.—How many foot-pounds of work will it require to 
change 60 pounds of boiling water, at 80 pounds absolute pressure, into 
steam of the same pressure ? 

Solution. —Looking in column 4, the latent heat of vaporization is 
895.108 ; that is, it takes 895.108 heat units to change 1 pound of water 
at 80 pounds pressure into steam of the same pressure. Therefore, it 
takes 895.108 X 60 — 53,706.48 heat units to perform the same operation 
on 60 pounds of water. Now, since 1 heat unit equals 778 foot-pounds 
of work, Art. 44, 53,706.48X 778 = 41,783,641.44 foot-pounds will be 
required. Ans. 

Example 5.—Find the volume occupied by 14 pounds of steam at 
30 pounds gauge pressure. 

Solution.— 30 pounds gauge pressure is 30 + 14.7 = 44.7, say 
45, pounds absolute, pressure. The volume of a pound of steam at 
44 pounds pressure is 9.403 cubic feet. That of a pound of steam at 46 
pounds pressure is 9.018 cubic feet. 9.403 — 9.018 = .385 cubic feet, the 

* 3S5 

difference in volume for a difference in pressure of 2 pounds. = 

.1925 cubic foot, the difference in volume for a difference of 1 pound. 
By subtracting this from the volume of 1 pound of steam at 44 pounds 
pressure, we have the volume at 45 pounds. Therefore, 9.403 — .1925 = 
9.210 cubic feet is the volume of 1 pound of steam at 45 pounds pres¬ 
sure. The .1925 is subtracted from 9.403, since the volume is less for 
a pressure of 45 pounds than for 44 pounds. 14 pounds, therefore, will 
occupy 14 X 9.210 = 128.94 cubic feet. Ans. 


26 


STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 


Example 6.—Find the weight of 40 cubic feet of steam at a tempera¬ 
ture of 255° F. 

Solution.— The weight of 1 cubic foot of steam at 254.002° is, from 
the table, .078839 pound. Neglecting the .002°, the weight of 40 cubic 
feet is, therefore, 40 X .078839 = 3.15356 pounds. Ans. 

Example 7.—How many pounds of steam at 64 pounds pressure, 
absolute, are required to raise the temperature of 300 pounds of water 
from 40° F. to 130° F., the water and steam being mixed together? 

Solution. —The number of heat units necessary to raise 1 pound from 
40° to 130° F. is 130 — 40, or 90 heat units. (Actually a little more 
would be required, but the above is near enough for all practical pur¬ 
poses.) Now, to raise the temperature of 300 pounds of water from 
40° to 130°, the steam must supply 90 X 300, or 27,000 heat units. It 
does this by being condensed and then having its water of condensation 
reduced to 130° F. 1 pound of steam at 64 pounds pressure gives up, 
in condensing to 1 pound of water, its latent heat of vaporization, or 
905.9 heat units. In addition to this, its water of condensation gives up 
166.805 heat units in being reduced to 130° F. This is found as follows : 
The water of condensation has the same temperature as the steam, 
296.805° F. For every degree its temperature is reduced, each pound 
gives up, practically, 1 heat unit. In falling from 296.805° to 130°, each 
pound gives up 296.805 —130 = 166.805 heat units. Each pound of 
steam, therefore, gives up a total of 905.9 + 166.805 = 1,072.705 heat 

27 000 

units ; hence, it will require ~ Q 72 ~ 7 05 = 25.17 pounds of steam to raise 
the 300 pounds of water from 40° to 130° F. 


THE STEAM ENGINE. 


WORK DONE BY STEAM. 

68. Properly speaking, steam does not do work. It simply 
acts as an agent by means of which the potential energy of the 
fuel is converted into kinetic energy and made to do work. 
The ability to do work which steam possesses is, therefore, due 
entirely to its heat; in other words, it is the heat that does the 
work and not the steam. However, as it is customary to speak 
of the “work done by the steam,” “the work done by the 
steam in expanding,” etc., these expressions will be used 
instead of the longer one, “the work done by the heat contained 
in the steam.” 





STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 


27 


61). Obtaining Work From Steam. —The usual method 
of obtaining work from steam is to generate steam at from 75 to 
200 pounds pressure by confining it in a closed boiler. The 
steam is then admitted first to one end of a cylinder fitted with 
a piston, and then to the other. The pressure of the steam is 
thus applied alternately on opposite sides of the piston, with 
the result that it is made to move to and fro within the cylinder. 


TIIE STEAM CYLINDER. 


70. The working of a steam cylinder can best be explained 
by referring to Fig. 3, in which C is the cylinder ; P, a piston, 
which makes a steam-tight joint with the walls of the cylinder; 



Fig. 3. 


R , the piston rod ; a and b , two steam pipes, which connect the 
ends A and B of the cylinder with the boiler; and c and d , two 
short pipes, which connect the ends A and B of the cylinder 
with the atmosphere. The passages in the pipes a, 6, c, and d 
are controlled by the valves 1,2,3, and 1^. 

71. Generating Power. —Now let us see under what 
conditions the piston will move and develop power. It is 
evident that the valves 1 and 2 should not be open at the same 
time, since in that case both sides of the piston will be acted on 
by steam at boiler pressure. Suppose that valve 1 is opened, 

























28 STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 


and that valves #, 3, and Jp remain closed. Under these con¬ 
ditions steam will enter the left end A of the cylinder, and force 
the piston to the right until the air that is entrapped in the 
end B is compressed sufficiently to stop the piston. The piston, 
therefore, cannot complete its stroke until the air under com¬ 
pression in the end B is allowed to escape by opening the 
valve Ip- 

To make the piston take a stroke to the right, therefore, it is 
necessary to close valves 2 and 3 , and open valves 1 and Jp. 
Likewise, to make it take a stroke to the left it is necessary to 
close valves 1 and Jp and open valves 2 and 3. In either case, 
while steam is being admitted to the cylinder on one side of the 
piston, it must be exhausted from it on the other side. The 
entering steam exerts a greater pressure on the piston than 
the steam being exhausted ; consequently, the piston always 
moves towards that end of the cylinder that is open to the 
atmosphere through the exhaust passage. 


CYLINDER, AND SLIDE VALVE. 

72. Description of Cylinder and Steam Chest. —In 
order that the piston may be made to alternate back and forth 
in the cylinder, regularly, some means must be provided whereby 
the steam can be admitted to, and exhausted from, the cylinder 
regularly and at the proper moment. A simple device for 
accomplishing this is illustrated in Fig. 4. 

In view (a) a section is shown of a steam cylinder Csteam 
chest X, and a slide valve v f together with a view of the piston P 
and piston rod R. S is the steam-supply pipe, through which 
steam passes from the boiler to the steam chest. The slide 
valve v is in the steam chest and, in this device, serves the 
same purpose as the valves 1, 2, 3 , and Jp of Fig. 3 ; that is, it 
controls the passages a, 6, and d. This valve may be considered 
as a cast-iron box with its cover removed, turned “upside 
down” in the steam chest so that the cavity c in the valve is 
toward the valve seat ss. 

The ports a and b in the valve seat lead from the steam chest 
to the opposite ends of the steam cylinder, as shown in view 



STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 


29 


(a), and are called the steam ports, while port d, between ports a 
and b, leads to the atmosphere and is called the exhaust port. 



These ports serve the same purpose as the steam pipes a and b , 
and the exhaust pipes c and d , of Fig. 3. 


73. Description of Slide Valve.— Another view of the 
slide valve v, which is of the ordinary D type, is given in 
view (6). In this view, the valve is removed from the steam 
chest and turned over so as to show the cavity c and the face of 
the valve. View (c) is a view of the valve seat s as seen from 
above. It will be noticed that the ports in the valve seat are 
long and narrow. Their length is made slightly less than the 
width of the cavity c in the slide valve, to prevent steam from 
acting underneath the edges of the face of the valve and thus 
raise it from its seat. The ends 1 and 2 of the valve are of just 
the same width as the steam ports a and b in the valve seat, 



























































SO STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 


and the valve is made of such a length that its ends 1 and 2 
just cover the ports a and b , when the valve is at mid-stroke. 

74. Operation of Steam Cylinder.— If the valve is 
moved either to the left or to the right of its mid-position, 
it opens one of the steam ports, so that steam can pass through 
it to that end of the steam cylinder, while, at the same time, it 
connects the other end of the cylinder with the atmosphere 
through the other steam port, the cavity c of the slide valve, 
and the exhaust port d. The flow of steam both to and from 
the cylinder is shown by the arrows in the figure. 

If, as the piston reaches the end of its stroke to the right, the 
slide valve is moved to the left until it connects the steam port a 
with the exhaust port d, and uncovers the steam port 6, the 
steam in the left end of the cylinder will flow back through 
port a, and pass to the atmosphere through cavity c of the 
slide valve and the exhaust port d , while steam will pass 
through the steam port b to the right end of the cylinder and 
force the piston to the left. 

We have already seen that, when the slide valve is moved so 
as to admit steam to one end of the cylinder, it exhausts it 
from the other end, and that steam, on entering the cylinder, 
always forces the piston to the other end of the cylinder. 
Therefore, all that is necessary to keep the piston constantly 
moving back and forth, is to move the slide valve back and 
forth in such a way that it will open and close the steam 
ports a and b alternately, and just as the piston reaches the 
end of its stroke. 


TIIE STEAM ENGINE. 

75. The steam engine is a machine for transforming the 
potential energy of fuel into mechanical work. It consists of 
(1) a furnace in which the potential energy of the coal is con¬ 
verted into heat energy ; (2) a boiler containing water which 
absorbs tins heat energy and stores it in the steam that is gen¬ 
erated, so that it can be readily used ; and (3) some means of 
changing the heat energy of the steam into mechanical work, 
as, for instance, by means of a steam cylinder and piston. 









Boiler 








































































































































































































































































































STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 


31 


However, while the boiler, furnace, and steam cylinder, strictly 
speaking, are each parts of the steam engine, it is customary to 
call the furnace and boiler the boiler , and the steam cylinder 
with its accompanying parts and devices, the engine. 

76. A simple form of engine is shown in Fig. 5, together 
with the boiler and the steam-supply pipe S. In the figure 
the cylinder C, steam chest X, and slide valve v, are shown in 
section, and the steam and exhaust ports, the cavity c in the 
slide valve, and the other parts are lettered as in Fig. 4. The 
details of the various mechanical contrivances are purposely 
omitted, to make the illustration as simple as possible, that it 
may be more readily understood. 

It is desirable to convert or change the to-and-fro motion of 
the piston of an engine into rotary motion, such as turning 
the flywheel of a stationary engine, or the drivers of a locomo¬ 
tive. This is accomplished by means of a connecting-rod G 
and crank X, Fig. 5. It is essential, also, that the engine be 
self-acting when once started, and this is accomplished by 
giving the slide valve the proper to-and-fro motion by means of 
the valve rod g , and the crank Jc, on the shaft. Motion is com¬ 
municated by the piston P, through the piston rod R and 
connecting-rod G, to the piston crank K, and, by this means, 
the shaft D, and, consequently, the valve crank k are rotated. 
The motion of the valve crank k is communicated through the 
valve rod g and valve stem r to the slide valve, which is made 
to slide to and fro on its seat. 

The valve crank k is secured to the shaft D at right angles to the 
position of the crank K ; consequently, the slide valve is at mid¬ 
stroke when the piston is at either end of its stroke. To show 
the relative positions of the slide valve and piston for different 
points of both a forward and a backward stroke of the piston, 
the following, series of skeleton diagrams of an engine are given. 


DIAGRAMS OF A SLIDE-VALVE ENGINE. 

77. In the five diagrams of a slide-valve engine, Fig. 6, 
0 corresponds to the shaft D, Fig. 5; Oa, to the piston 
crank K; and Ob, to the valve crank k. The larger circle of 



32 


STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 


dotted lines represents the path of the center of the piston 
crank-pin as it revolves around the shaft 0 , and the smaller 



Fig. 6. 

circle represents the path of the center of the valve crank-pin. 
ac corresponds to the connecting-rod^G, and b d to the valve 









































STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 33 

rod g. The sizes of the various parts have purposely been 
exaggerated to make the diagrams clearer. 

78. Diagram A. —The diagram A represents the piston 
at the end of its stroke, and just about to move to the right, as 
shown by the arrow. Also, the valve is about to move in the 
direction of its arrow, and, therefore, steam is about to be 
admitted to the left-hand steam port, while the right-hand port 
is about to be connected wdth the exhaust. The piston is at 
the beginning of its forward stroke, while the valve is at 
mid-stroke. It will be noticed that with the piston in this 
position, the connecting-rod ac and piston crank Oa form a 
straight line, while the valve crank, which is at right angles to 
it, is vertical. All the parts are about to move in the direction 
indicated by their arrows. 

79. Diagram 33.— Diagram B shows the position of the 
parts w'hen the crank 0 a has moved through the first quarter of 
its revolution, and is at right angles to its position in diagram A. 
While the crank is moving through this quarter circle, the 
piston moves from the beginning to the middle of its stroke, 
and the slide valve moves from the middle to the end of its 
forward stroke, and is on the point of reversing its motion. 
The left steam port is now wide open for the admission of 
steam, and the right steam port is wide open for exhaust. 

80. Diagram C. —Diagram C shows the position of the 
parts when the crank has moved through the second quarter of 
its circle. The piston has moved from mid-stroke to the end 
of its forward stroke, and is on the point of reversing the direc¬ 
tion of its motion. The slide valve has reversed the direction 
of its motion, and traveled from the beginning to the middle of 
its return stroke ; consequently, it has just closed both steam 
ports and is on the point of opening the right steam port for 
the admission of steam, and the left port for the flow of exhaust 
steam to the atmosphere. 

81. Diagram D. —As the crank travels its third quarter, 
to the position shown in diagram D, the piston has its direction 
of motion reversed and travels the first half of its return stroke. 


34 STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 

The slide valve, during the same time, travels from the middle 
to the end of its return stroke. In this position both steam 
ports are wide open ; the right-hand one to the steam chest, and 
the left-hand one to the exhaust. 

82. Diagram E. —While the crank travels the last quarter 
of its stroke, to the position shown in diagram E , which is the 
same as that shown in diagram A, the piston travels the last 
half of its return stroke, and is on the point of reversing and 
beginning another forward stroke. The valve, meanwhile, has 
traveled from the beginning to the middle of another forward 
stroke and again covers both steam ports. Since the valve is 
moving forward, it is on the point of uncovering the left steam 
port for the admission of steam, and connecting the right steam 
port with the exhaust. 

83. Comparison of Diagrams. —Comparing the direc¬ 
tion of the arrows, which indicate the direction of the motion 
of the different parts in the five diagrams, it will be seen that 
the slide valve is always half a stroke ahead of the piston. 
During the first half of the forward stroke of the piston, the 
valve and piston move in the same direction, but during the last 
half the valve moves to the left, while the piston continues to 
the right. The left steam port, therefore, is open for the admis¬ 
sion of steam, and the right port to the exhaust, for the full 
length of the forward stroke. Likewise, during the first half of 
the return stroke the valve and the piston travel in the same 
direction, whereas, during the second half, they travel in opposite 
directions. During the full length of the return stroke, steam 
is admitted to the right of the piston, while the space to the left 
is open to the exhaust. 

Another thing to notice is that when the crank Oa and the 
connecting-rod ac are in the same straight line, as in diagrams 
A, C, and E, the piston is at the end of its stroke. When in 
this position, the engine is said to be on the dead center. 

84. In practice, it is not customary to admit steam to the 
cylinder for the full length of the stroke. Steam is usually 
admitted during a part of the stroke only ; the supply is then 



STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 


35 


shut off and the steam in the cylinder is allowed to expand 
during the remainder of the stroke. This subject, however, 
will be more fully discussed in another place. 


LOCOMOTIVES. 

85. A locomotive is a self-propelling steam engine which 
travels on wheels, and is provided with suitable buffers, draw¬ 
bars, etc. to enable it to draw a train of cars on a track—made 
of steel rails—provided for that purpose. Being self-propelling, 
it must be complete in itself, and the engine and boiler with 
their fittings and mountings must be fixed in a suitable frame, 
which, together with the driving wheels and truck, form a 
carriage for the other parts. 

CLASSIFICATION OF LOCOMOTIVES. 

86. Locomotives may be divided into two general classes : 
(1) passenger and freight locomotives; (2) locomotives 
designed for special service. 

PASSENGER AND FREIGHT LOCOMOTIVES. 


87. Locomotives of the first class may again be divided 
into: (1) eight-wheeled engines; (2) moguls; (3) ten¬ 
wheeled engines ; (4) consolidation engines. 



1. The eight-wheeled locomotive , Fig. 7, has four driving wheels 


























































36 


STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 


and a four-wheeled truck. This type of engine is used prin¬ 
cipally for passenger service. 



2. The mogul , Fig. 8, also has eight wheels—six drivers and 
a two-wheeled truck, usually called a pony, or Bissell , truck. 
These engines are used principally for freight service. 

3. The ten-wheeled locomotive , Fig. 9, has six drivers and a 
four-wheeled truck, and is used in heavy freight service where 
grades are steep. 



4. The consolidation locomotive, Fig. 10, has eight drivers, and 
two truck wheels, and it, also, is used in heavy freight service 
when grades are steep. 









































































































STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 


37 


Engines for heavy freight service, on roads having very heavy 
grades, are sometimes made with twelve wheels. Those having 
eight coupled drivers and a four-wheeled truck are called 
twelve-wheeled engines ; those having ten coupled drivers and a 
two-wheeled truck are called decapods. Decapods are used 
generally on mountainous roads, where the grades are excessively 
steep. 

88. Increasing’ the Number of Drivers. —By increas¬ 
ing the number of driving wheels, larger and heavier engines 
can be used and a greater per cent, of the weight of the 
engine can be carried on the drivers, thereby greatly increasing 



the traction of the driving wheels on the rails, without placing 
excessive pressure on the driving axles or on the line of contact 
of the wheels with the rails. 

One disadvantage of increasing the number of drivers is that 
it increases the rigid wheel base, but the effect of this is 
partially overcome by making the tires on certain drivers wider 
and without flanges. The advantages of using more than four 
drivers are so much greater than the disadvantages that the 
practice of coupling three or more pairs of drivers together is 
increasing. 

89. Wheel Base. —The rigid wheel base of a locomotive 
is the distance between the centers of the first and last driving 
axles, Figs. 7, 8, 9, and 10. The total wheel base is the distance 





















































38 


STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 


between the centers of the axles of the last driving wheel and 
the first truck wheel. 

In speaking of drivers, the pair towards the front end are 
called the first pair ; immediately back of these are the second 
pair; etc. 


LOCOMOTIVES FOR SPECIAL SERVICE. 

90. Under the second class are placed all other engines 
designed and constructed to meet the requirements of many 
kinds of service for which locomotives of the first class are not 
suited, or in which they would not be economical. To this 
class belong the switching, mountain, mining, logging, planta¬ 
tion, and other industrial locomotives of various sizes and for 
any practical gauge of track. 


GAUGE OF TRACK. 

91 . The standard broad gauge of the United States is 
4 feet 8J inches ; narrow gauges vary from 21 inches to 3 feet. 



Fig. 11. 

The gauge of a track is measured by the clearance of the two 
rails, as shown in Fig. 11. 


DETAILS OF CONSTRUCTION. 

FRAMES. 

92 . Side views of four styles of frames commonly used in 
practice are shown in Fig. 12. Frames (a), (6), and (c) are 
each made in two parts, the cylinders being fastened to the 
front part or rail of the frame, called the splice. The back 
part, called the main fvam,e, contains the pedestals or jaws for 
the driving boxes. 








STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS 


39 



Fig. 12. 





























































































































































































































































40 


STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 


View (a) represents the frame of an eight-wheeled passenger 
engine, view (6) that of a mogul or of a ten-wheeled engine, 
and view (c) that of a consolidation engine. 

The jaws , or pedestals , hold the journal-boxes in place, and 

consist of two frame legs 
each. These are welded 
to the top rail and lower 
frame braces of the main 
frame, thus binding them 
together. 

Several styles of pedes¬ 
tals are shown in Figs. 13, 
14, and 15. Referring to 
Fig. 13, A is the top rail of main frame and pedestals; B, B are 
the frame legs that form the jaws ; and C is a pedestal cap , 
or binder , which is bolted the lower frame brace D. The 
pedestal cap binds the frame legs together, and prevents 




them from spreading, while at the same time it permits the 
wheels and boxes to be readily dropped out or put in when 
necessary. 



























































STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 


41 


In Figs. 14 and 15 the frame legs are bound together at the 
bottom by the jaw bolt E , which passes through the frame thimble 
C\ inserted between the legs of the jaw. The jaw bolts are gen¬ 
erally 2 to 2J inches in diameter. The frame thimble is made 
of cast iron, and is provided at one end with slots F, F through 
which the ivedge bolts G pass. 

The thimble arrangement is generally used for larger sized 
engines, since in engines having cylinders less than 16 inches in 
diameter the jaw bolts interfere with the wedge bolts. Pedestal 
caps, therefore, are preferable for small engines. Two different 
forms of jaws are used. That shown in Figs. 14 and 15 has one 




Fig. 15. 


straight and one tapered leg. The straight leg is always placed 
nearest the cjdinders, as it is then easier to maintain the same 
distance between the center of the cylinder and of the driving 
axles. 

In Fig. 13 both legs of the jaw are tapered. This form has 
been extensively used, but of late years that shown in Figs. 14 
and 15 has had the preference. In both forms, the taper of the 
legs is usually 1J inches in 12 inches. 































































42 


STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 


93. Wedges and Shoes. —The wedge ( W 2 ) and shoe ( W t ) 
serve two purposes : first, they protect the legs from wear ; and, 
second , they provide a means of taking up any play between the 
journal-box and wedges that may result from wear. 

When the engine is in motion, the journal-boxes play up 
and down in their pedestal jaws, and gradually w r ear away 
the wedge and shoe. If this wear is not taken up, it soon 
results in a bad pound, which occurs every time the engine 
passes a dead center. 

94. Taking Up Play. —The play is taken up by moving 
the wedge W 2 upwards by means of the wedge bolts G, since 
raising the wedge brings its face and that of the shoe nearer 
together. The bolts H, H hold the wedge and shoe in position 
against the legs of the jaw ; and, since the wedge W 2 must be 
raised, a slot is cut in the tapered leg of the jaw, which permits 
the bolt, when loosened, to be moved up or down with the 
wedge while the latter is being adjusted. To raise the wedge, 
therefore, the bolt H must be unscrewed sufficiently to permit 
it to move up with the wedge, and the lower nut on the wedge 
bolt G must be unscrewed sufficiently, after which the 
wedge may be raised by turning the upper nut of the wedge 
bolt in a direction that will raise it. When the wedge is 
properly adjusted, the lower wedge-bolt nut and the bolt H 
should be tightened, to secure it in place. 

The head of the wedge-bolt G fits into the slot at the bottom 
of the wedge W 2 . The wedge, therefore, may be lowered by 
loosening the bolt H, and unscrewing the upper, and screwing 
the lower, wedge-bolt nut. 

95. Dive and Dead Wedges. — The wedge W 2 is some¬ 
times called the live wedge, and the shoe W 1 the dead wedge; the 
former being tapered so that the faces of the shoe and wedge are 
parallel to each other and at right angles or “square” with 
the edge of the top rail A. 

In some cases, the jaws are fitted with 1 live and 1 dead 
wedge, as in Fig. 14 ; in others, with 1 live and 2 dead wedges, 
as in Fig. 15—the latter construction being used for high-speed 



STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 


43 


passenger engines—while with pedestals like that of Fig. 13, 
2 live wedges are used. 

96. Fig. 12 (d) illustrates a type of frame called the built-up 
frame. In this the frame legs are only forged to the top rail 
of the frame, the bottom, middle, and back braces being bolted 
to the legs. 


ATTACHING BOILER TO FRAME. 

97. The front ends of the splices of the frame are held 
together by means of the bumper beam e , Fig. 7, a wooden beam 
usually 10 in. X 12 in. in cross-section, which is bolted to the 
splices. The latter are also rigidly fastened to the cylinders of 
the engine, the splices usually being supplied with lugs to 
which the cylinders are secured by means of wedges and bolts. 
That portion of the splice which extends beyond the cylinders 
and is secured to the bumper timber ig fastened to the smoke- 
box by means of diagonal braces d, Fig. 7, called arch braces. 
The main frame is fastened to the barrel of the boiler by 
braces, and to the firebox by expansion clamps. In being 
heated, the boiler expands and lengthens from \ to T 5 F inch 
more than the frame. The expansion clamps, therefore, must 
be so constructed that while they secure the frame to the 
firebox they will allow it to slide through them as the boiler 
expands, thus avoiding the strains to which both the frame and 
clamp bolts would otherwise be subjected. The back ends of 
the frames are held together by means of the drawbar. The 
guide yoke is also generally bolted to the frames and connected 
to the boiler. The lower part of the frame usually is held 
together by transverse braces. That part of the frame under 
the foot-plate is usually fastened to the back boiler head by 
means of diagonal braces called foot-plate braces. 

98. As already stated, the frame forms a carriage for, and 
therefore carries the weight of, the other parts of the locomotive. 
Fig. 16 shows how this weight is transferred to the journals of 
the driving axles on an eight-wheeled engine. In the figure, the 
axles are supposed to be cut off just back of the nearest drivers, 
which are removed to give a better view of the arrangement of 



44 STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 


the parts. The arrangement of the gear on the other side of the 
engine is, of course, similar to that shown in the figure. 

The weight of the frame and its load rests on the journals of 
the axles, which are just inside the driving wheels. These 
journals turn on journal brasses, or bearings, which are held 
in position by the jaws and wedges, as shown in the figure. In 
the figure, also, A represents the off-side drivers ; C and O', 
the expansion braces which attach the frame to the firebox ; 
G, the spring saddles which rest on the top of the driving 
boxes ; H , the spring hangers, the hanger to the left being 
attached to the frame at b by means of a pin. The hanger 
to the right passes through the upper frame brace and a 
spring s. The short hangers connect the ends of the equal¬ 



izing lever R to the driver springs as shown. The fulcrum R 
of the equalizing lever is securely bolted to the frame. S, S are 
bands, which- hold the leaves of the driver springs in place. 
An inspection of the figure will show that the weight sustained 
by the frame is transferred to the springs, and thence through 
the spring saddle and journal-box to the journals of the driving 
boxes. 

The duty of the springs is to absorb or take up the shock 
occasioned every time the drivers pass over a bad rail joint, or 
a high or low spot in the track. By “giving” somewhat, the 
springs transform what otherwise would be a sudden blow into 
a gradually increasing pressure which is not nearly so destruc¬ 
tive to either track or locomotive. 
















































STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 


45 


EQUALIZERS. 

99. Duty of Equalizing Lever. —The duty of the equal¬ 
izing lever R is to distribute and maintain the weight equally on 
all the driving wheels. If no such device were used, and if the 
frames were supported directly on the driving boxes, every time 
a driver went over a high spot it would tend to lift and carry 
the load of the other drivers on that side ; also, every time it 
dropped into a low spot it would tend to throw its share of the 
load on the other drivers. This not only would make the 
engine ride hard and pitch more than usual, but it would sub¬ 
ject the different parts of the running gear to such stresses that 
accidents would occur much more frequently. 

100. Mode of Operation of Equalizing Gear. —The 

manner in which the equalizing gear maintains the load on the 
drivers equal, is as follows : When the driver A rolls on to a 
high spot in the track, its axle and, therefore, the saddle G are 
raised. This tends to move the spring upwards, but as the end c 
cannot move up—being attached to the frame at b by the 
hanger il—only the end c' moves upwards. This movement 
causes the equalizing bar to rotate on the fulcrum R , the end c’ 
moving upwards, while the other end, which is attached to the 
second driver spring at d , is moved downwards, carrying that 
end of the second spring with it. Thus, since the end d' of the 
spring is prevented from moving upwards, a downward pressure 
is transferred through the saddle G to the axle of the second 
driver, and both springs are made to bear the shock instead of 
all being borne by one. _ 

DRIVING WHEELS. 

101. Driving Axles. —The driving axles are made of 
hammered iron or steel. In Fig. 17 are shown four different 
styles used in locomotive practice. The part A is called the 
wheel jit, and is usually turned £ inch less in diameter than the 
journal B of the axle ; this gives sufficient shoulder for all prac¬ 
tical purposes. If the difference between the diameter of the 
journal and wheel fit is greater than -g- inch, the axle will be 
greatly weakened, and will be liable to break off at the hub of 



46 


STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 


the wheel; sharp corners at A, h will lead to breakage, and 
should therefore be avoided. The axle may be strengthened by 
filleting the shoulder. The junction on the axle shown in view 
(d) is the best of the four. Here the diameters of the journal and 
wheel fit are equal, a collar e being formed on the axle when it 
is turned up in the lathe. The collar is from inch to T s g- inch 
wide, and inch larger in diameter than the journal. It will be 
noticed that it is filleted on both sides, so as to avoid sharp 


1% __ h 


A 

B C B 

A 


(a) 



e 

A 

B 

C 

B 

A 


( d ) 

IT ||| 

ib) 

D 

W/////A-X 

D 


A 

B \ 

C 

\ B 

A 


^ m 

(c> 

<22Z|] 



Fig. 17. 


corners. When the collar is used, the hub of the wheel is 
counterbored to receive it. The central part C of all the axles 
is smooth-forged, and is never turned. 

Axle (a) is commonly used as a main driving axle. 

Axle (6) is generally used for coupled driving axles, and, as 
shown, the central part C is gradually reduced in diameter to 
the middle. 

Axle (c) is also a main driving axle with cast-iron collars D , D 
that are either shrunk on or held in position by two setscrews. 

102. Driving- Wheels.—Examples of driving wheels are 
shown in Figs. 18-21. They consist of the wheel centers A on 
which is shrunk a tire B, Fig. 18. The driving-wheel centers 
are almost universally made of cast iron. Sometimes the 
spokes S are cast solid, but usually they and the rim D are cast 
hollow. The hub H, the crank E and the counterbalance C com¬ 
plete the driver. 


































STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 


47 


The counterbalance is either cast in segments and bolted 
between the spokes, as in Fig. 19, or it is cast together with the 
wheel, either hollow, as in Fig. 18, or solid, as in Figs. 20 and 21. 
When cast hollow, lead is afterwards run in through the core 
holes. 

The tires are shrunk on their centers. To effect this the 
wheel centers are turned square across, and the tire is bored 
somewhat smaller in diameter than that of the wheel center. 
The tire is then heated by means of a number of gas flames 
arranged in a circle, until it is sufficiently expanded to slip over 
the wheel center. After having put the tire in place it is cooled, 
thus contracting it and causing it to bind on the center. 

103. The wheel shown in Fig. 18 is the one most commonly 
used for eight-wheeled passenger locomotives having cylinders 

a Section ab Section cd 




from 17 inches up to 19 inches in diameter. In this wheel 
the rim D, spokes S, and the counterbalance are cast hollow. 
As can be seen in the figure, the drawing represents the halves 
of two different wheels, the part to the left of the line ab 
representing in elevation and section half of a main driver, 
while the part to the right is a similar representation of half of 
a back driver, the difference between the two being in the 



























48 


STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 


dimensions of the counterbalance. The spokes, shown also in 
section by gli and e/, have a peculiar oval shape, and are cast 
hollow. These forms are the most economical for resisting the 
stresses and for saving material. 

104. In Fig. 19 is illustrated the wheel center of a main 
driver for a high-speed passenger engine, having 18" X 24" 
cylinders. In this wheel the spokes are cast solid, but the rim 
is hollow, except that portion aba. The cored part of the 
rim does not extend to the periphery (see through section gh ), 



and the only openings in it are the core holes a. The hub H 
of the wheel center is also cored, leaving openings p on the 
inner surface. Solid blocks of iron, which, form the counter¬ 
weights, are placed between the spokes at u, and are bolted or 
riveted in place. 

105. In Fig. 20 is shown the wheel center of the main 
driver for a consolidation engine. The spokes and counter¬ 
balance are cast solid, while the rim is cored out, leaving 
openings a on the periphery of the wheel center for the core 
holes. These wheels are generally small in diameter, and if the 
counterbalance is not sufficiently heavy to meet the require¬ 
ments it is cast hollow, leaving closed chambers between the 


























STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 


49 


spokes, which are then filled with lead to increase the weight of 
the counterbalance. 


e 



106. Fig. 21 shows another style of main driver for an 
eight-wheeled engine, having cylinders 19 inches in diameter 



and 24 or 26 inches stroke. This wheel is cast entirely solid, 
but the rim is split at a, b , and c, to avoid the stresses due to 









































50 


STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 


shrinkage when the casting cools ; the counterweight also is 
slit at c. Cast-iron liners are inserted in these slits, and the 
tire is then shrunk on the center, as before described. 

107. The drivers, as generally constructed, have flanged 


Fig. 22. 

tires , and vary from 4f to 6J inches in width, according 
to the rails used. In the larger engines, having long wheel 
bases and using six or more drivers, one or two pairs of drivers 

have ‘plain tires. The plain 
tires are always wider than the 
flanged ones; they must be 
made to suit the curves over 
which the engine has to run, 
and must be wide enough not 
to leave the track. They vary, 
for the different classes, from 
5f to 7 inches in width. 

In Fig. 22, sectional views 
are given of both forms of 
tires ; a = the width, b == the 
depth, c = the height of the 
flange, and d = the clearance 
for the rail, which is a fillet having a radius of T 9 g or f inch. 

108. Driving: Box.— Fig. 23 shows a driving box. The 
driving boxes (and truck boxes) transfer the entire weight of 
the engine (not including the weight of the wheels and axles, 



Fig. 23. 


















































































STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 


51 


the slide rods and back end of main rod) to the journals. A 
is the driving-box casting, and B is the oil cellar, which is filled 
with oil-soaked waste that keeps the bearings well lubricated. 
The cellar is kept in position by the pins d, d. The flanges/,/, 
serve to retain the driving box and wedges in place, the jaws 
fitting between the flanges. The rectangular-shaped holes e, e 
receive the corresponding projections on the bottom of the 
spring saddle. C is the driving-box brass, or journal bearing. 


SETTING UP WEDGES. 

109. In setting up wedges , the idea is to take up all of the 
lost motion between the driving box and the wedges, leaving 
just sufficient play to allow the driving box to move up and 
down freely in the jaws, and to allow for expansion should the 
box become heated. Wedges can best be set when the engine 
has steam up, although they can be set without steam. 

110. When Steam Is Up.— Place the engine on a piece 
of straight, level track. To set the wedges on the right side of 
the engine, place the crankpin on that side in the top quarter, 
block the left-hand drivers so that the engine cannot move 
forward, and admit a little steam into the back end of the 
cylinders. This tends to pull the driving boxes forward against 
the shoes, leaving all of the play next to the wedge, where it can 
readily be taken up by raising the wedge W 2 . If necessary, a 
pinch bar may be used to assist this action of the steam. The 
wedge should be set up solid and then drawn down sufficiently 
to give the required amount of play ; the locknuts on the 
wedge bolts, and the bolts that secure the wedges to the pedestal 
jaws, should then be screwed up tight. 

To set up the wedges on the left-hand side, place the crank- 
pin on that side in the top quarter ; then proceed as with the 
right-hand wedges. 

111. When Steam Is Not Up. —If the wedges must be 
set up without the aid of steam in the cylinders, proceed as 
follows : Place the engine on a straight, level track, as before, 
with the crankpin in the top quarter ; block the drivers on the 



52 STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 

opposite side, and use a bar behind the drivers, on the side on 
which you are working, to pinch the driving boxes forward against 
the shoes. The wedges are then set up as in the other method. 

ENGINE TRUCKS. 

112. In practice, two styles of locomotive trucks are used— 
the four-wheeled and the two-wheeled truck. The truck wheels 
used are either 33 or 36 inches in diameter, depending on the 
speed of the engine for which they are intended. For high-speed 
engines, 36-inch wheels are used, as they make fewer revolu¬ 
tions than 33-inch wheels, and, consequent^, both the wear 
on the journals and the tendency for the boxes to heat is less. 

113. A four-wheeled truck , used on passenger locomotives, is 
shown in Fig. 24. The frame F is riveted or bolted to the 
transverse bars T, which support the center casting E. The 


M 




center casting contains three or four liners, on which the center 
plate R rests. The center casting and the center plate are con¬ 
nected by the center pin P. To the frames are bolted the cast- 
iron or wrought-iron legs a, a, which form a jaw for the truck 
box B, which is made of brass, and is quite similar to a driving 
box, except that no wedge and shoe is used in connection with it. 
The lower parts of the legs are held together by longitudinal 
braces b, one on each side of the truck. The frame rests on the 
spring straps D, and so is carried by the springs S (one on each 
side). The truck boxes are provided with notches on the top part 
for retaining the equalizing lever C in place. The springs are 
connected to equalizers by the hangers d, which swing on pins. 

































GS 


zd 


d 




Fig. 25. 
























































































































































































54 


STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 


The curved spring shown, has of late been replaced to 
a certain extent by helical springs when the trucks are com¬ 
paratively short. The length of the truck-wheel base (distance 
between the center lines of the axles) must, however, be great 
enough to allow the wheels to clear the cylinder heads when the 
engine is passing around a curve. 

The truck-Avheel guards are generally fastened on the splice 
of the engine frame ; also to the truck frame. When the latter 
method is used, care must be taken that they clear the frame 
when the truck swings. 

Four-wheeled trucks are used under eight- and ten-wheeled 
engines. 

114. The truck shown in Fig. 25 is the two-wheeled truck, 
commonly called the pony, or Bissell , truck , and is used under 
mogul and consolidation engines. 

Fig. 25 shows a plan, sectional elevation, and sectional end 
view of a truck. The frame FQQ'F ' is of rectangular shape, 
and to it the axle is attached. A V-shaped frame S, called a 
radius bar, is bolted to the rectangular frame by the bolts 1. 
The radius bar extends back under the engine, and is connected 
to the main frame by a cross-piece, or bar (not shown), and pin 
L. This allows the truck to swing laterally about the pin, thus 
adjusting itself to the curves of the track. The bedplate of the 
cylinders rests upon the casting R , which is connected to the 
lever mn, called the equalizing lever , by the pin K. This lever 
supports the weight of the front end of the engine in the fol¬ 
lowing manner : The back end AMs connected to the hanger g 
as shown. The upper end of the hanger is attached to the 
transverse equalizing lever d d by the pin h , this lever being in 
turn connected by the hangers b , 6, to the front ends of the 
forward driving springs fj. The other end M of the equalizing 
lever passes through the slot u of the bolt P, which is sustained 
by the hollow kingbolt C. The kingbolt is placed inside the 
casting D, which is bolted to the engine frame, and rests on the 
casting B, called a bolster, which is carried by the links G, G, 
suspended from the truck frame FQQ'F ' in the manner shown’ 
the connection being made by means of the pins m, n. A 




STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 55 


bolster that is suspended in this manner is called a swing 
bolster. The truck itself is carried on helical springs /, /; 
yokes shaped something like an inverted U rest on top of the 
boxes, and their lower ends carry castings in which sit the 
springs /, I. r is the pedestal brace. The remaining details 
should be evident from the figure. 

This form of a pony truck relieves the engine of a large 
portion of the jars and shocks due to irregularities in the track. 
For, suppose that there was a slight depression in the track; 
the truck on reaching it would go suddenly downwards, and 
the sudden stoppage would produce a shock. With the truck 
described, the pin K acts as a fulcrum, the end M of the equal¬ 
izing lever going down, and the end N going up ; then, as the 
front end of the engine comes down, tlc\e springs / are bent, 
causing the front end to descend very gradually, the Springs 
absorbing the shock. 




The links G, G permit the engine to pass more easily around 
a curve. Thus, suppose that the engine meets a curve. The 
engine tends to keep straight ahead, while the flanges of the 
wheels A, A compel the truck to follow the curve. The conse¬ 
quence is that the entire truck, together with the bolster, is 
swung laterally to the right or left, according to the character 
of the curve, the links G, G swinging to the position on or pn, 
and the radius bar turning about its pin L. 

115. Another form of pony truck is shown in Fig. 26. 
Here there is no equalizing lever, the radius bar being bolted to 
a cross-piece which is attached directly to the main frame. 
The construction should be evident from the cut. The king¬ 
bolt fits in the hole C and connects the bedplate directly to the 
swing bolster. 


































Steam, Cylinders, and Valve Gears. 

(PART 2.) 


STEAM-PIPE CONNECTIONS AND 
CYLINDERS. 


DOME, THROTTLE VALVE, AND STEAM PIPES. 


PARTS ASSEMBLED. 

1. A simple form of steam engine was described and illus¬ 
trated in Art. 57, Part 1, the boiler and engine being in that 
instance separate from each other, the steam being conveyed 
from the boiler to the engine through a steam pipe connecting 
the two. The engine in question is called a stationary 
engine, since it is securely fixed on its foundation, and, 
hence, remains stationary while operating. 

A locomotive, on the other hand, is a portable steam engine, 
in which the boiler and engine proper are combined into one 
piece of mechanism and mounted on wheels. A locomotive 
really consists of a boiler, with its various fittings and mount¬ 
ings, and two engines, the engines being connected to the 
same driving axle, their respective cranks being set at an 
angle of 90° with each other. 

In Fig. 1 is shown a view of a locomotive boiler with the 
shell broken away, to show the interior arrangement of the 
throttle valve, dry pipe, and steam pipes. A is the throttle 
valve; it is located in the dome and its duty is to control 
the supply of steam to the cylinders. B is the stand pipe; 
0, the dry pipe; D , the T pipe or nigger head —called the 

For notice of copyright , see page immediately following the title page. 























































































































































































































































§8 STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 


3 


T pipe on account of its dividing with two branches like 
the letter T; and E, the steam pipes that connect with the 
steamways in the cylinder saddle. When the throttle valve is 
open, steam can pass from the boiler through the valve into the 
dry pipe, and thence through the steam pipes and steamways 
in the cylinder saddle, into the steam chests. When the 
throttle valve is closed, steam is prevented from passing from 
the boiler to the steam chests. 


THE DOME. 

2. The object of a steam dome (shown at h, Fig. 2) is to 
provide a space that is elevated considerably above the level of 
the water in the boiler, from which space dry steam can be 
drawn for use in the cylinders, etc. Besides this, the dome 
adds a small amount of steam space to the boiler, and forms 
a convenient stand for the safety valves, whistle, etc. 

The steam dome is usually placed on the highest part of 
the boiler, in order that the throttle valve within may be as 
high above the surface of the water as practicable, the throttle 
valve being so placed as to prevent, as far as possible, the spray 
or fine particles of water thrown up by the violent boiling from 
being carried along with the steam through the throttle valve 
and into the cylinders. Boilers in which the crown sheet is 
supported by crown bars generally have the dome placed well 
to the back of the boiler and over the firebox; in boilers 
having radial-stayed crown sheets the dome must be placed 
farther forward, as it would interfere with the proper staying 
of the crown sheet were it directly above this sheet. 


THE THROTTLE VALVE. 

3. Slide-Yalv© Throttle. —The general practice in loco¬ 
motive work is to place the throttle valve inside the dome. 
In old styles of locomotives, however, the throttle valve has 
been placed at the front end of the boiler, or else in the smoke- 
box close to the tube-sheet. When placed in either of these 
positions, it consists simply of a plain slide-valve arrangement, 
and is operated by a lever in the same way as the ordinary type 







4 STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. § 8 


of throttle valve. Slide-valve throttles, however, are objec¬ 
tionable, as they are subjected to considerable pressure, and are 
therefore hard to handle. A slide-valve throttle is subjected 
to the greatest pressure when closed, as then there is no pressure 
in the dry pipe to act on the under side of the valve; hence, 
the throttle works hardest when it is being opened—just when 
it ought to work easiest. On account of this, it is difficult to 
properly regulate the admission of steam to the cylinders in 
starting the engine, and for that reason the slide valve is now 
seldom used as a throttle valve. 

4. Double-Poppet Valve. —The form of throttle valve 
generally used is very similar to that illustrated in Fig. 2, 
which, as will be seen, is in the form of a double-poppet 
valve. The valve consists of the two disks a, b of unequal 


& s. 



diameters, cast with suitable wings c, c , which act as guides. 
The lower edges of the disks are beveled and are carefully 
ground on their seats until they make a steam-tight fit. 

















































§8 STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 


5 


There are several reasons for making the disk b smaller in 
diameter than the disk a: first , by making b the smaller, it can 
pass through the opening for the disk a; and second , the disk a, 
being the larger, is subjected to a greater total pressure than the 
disk b ; hence, it prevents any tendency of the valve to work 
open. It will be noticed that the upper face of disk a and the 
lower face of disk b are acted on by the steam pressure in 
the boiler when the throttle is closed. Now, if the two disks 
presented equal areas to the pressure of the steam, the upward 
pressure on disk b would balance the downward pressure on 
disk a, and, neglecting the weight, the valve would be perfectly 
balanced; any sharp jar, therefore, would tend to cause the 
throttle to fly open and admit steam to the cylinders. By 
making the area that is exposed to steam pressure slightly 
larger in the case of disk a than of disk b, the valve is held 
closed by the difference in total pressures on the disks (to 
say nothing of the valve’s weight), while at the same time the 
throttle will work comparatively easy. 

The throttle valve is operated by a lever called the throttle 
lever, which is connected to the valve by means of the throttle 
stem d, bell-crank lever e, link fi and valve stem g. The valve 
is made to fit the valve stem g quite loosely, so that both disks 
of the valve are free to set squarely on their seats. 

5. Pitkin Throttle Valve. —The small and medium 
sizes of double-poppet valves similar to that just described 
work satisfactorily, as they are fairly well balanced. Those of 
larger size, however, such as must be used with engines of the 
larger classes, are not so well balanced; hence, they work less 
satisfactorily, being harder to open. Also, they are harder to 
keep steam-tight, since the difference in the expansion of the 
valve and its seat, as well as the total pressure to which 
the valve is subjected, increases with the size of the valve. 

The Pitkin valve, Fig. 3, was designed with the idea of 
overcoming these difficulties. It consists of two smaller valves, 
instead of one large one, so connected to each other and to the 
throttle lever that they can be opened one at a time by means 
of the same throttle lever. By using two valves of moderate 





6 


STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. § 8 



size, instead of one large one, the same, or a greater, valve 
opening can be obtained, thus giving the required volume of 
steam, and the tendency 
of the valve to leak (due 
to the expansion of the 
metal) will be less. 

In the figure, view (a) 
represents the throttle 
valve and stand pipe, 
with part of the valve 
case removed to show 
the two valves A and B 
within. These valves, it 
will be observed, are of 
the double-poppet type. 



(a) (b) 

Fig. 3. 


View ( b ) shows a section taken through the center of the 
throttle-valve case, the valve B being removed. View (e) is a 
plan view, the valve case being broken away to show the parti¬ 
tion a which separates the chambers of the valves A and B. 



































§8 STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 


7 


The stems b and c of the valves are both connected to the 
crosshead C , while the crosshead is connected to the throttle 
lever by means of the link d, bell-crank lever e y and throttle 
stem /. It will be noticed, however, that the pin i, which con¬ 
nects the link d to the crosshead 0, is located nearer to pin h 
than to pin g; this arrangement makes it possible to open the 
valves one at a time, 
exerts an equal force 
their seats. When the 
throttle lever is 
moved, however, the 
force with which the 
link d tends to raise 
the valves is not 
exerted equally, the 
greater force being ex¬ 
erted on the valve B, 
owing to the point of 
connection of d and C 
being nearer to the 
stem of this valve than 
to that of valve A. 

When the throttle 
lever is moved in the 
direction to open the 
throttle, it causes the 
valve B to be raised 
first. This valve may 
be opened wide at 
once, or it may be 
opened a little at a 
time, as required, until practically wide open, the valve A 
remaining closed meanwhile. When the valve B is opened, 
steam is admitted to throttle pipeD, and exerts a pressure on the 
inside faces of valve A, partially balancing it, thus making 
the valve open easily. In opening the valve B, as soon as 
the end k of the crosshead strikes against the lug l on the 
valve case, this lug acts as a fulcrum for the lever (7, and any 


When the throttle is closed, the steam 
on the valves, tending to hold them on 



(a) 
Fig. 4. 

































8 


STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. §8 


further movement of the throttle lever will cause the valve A to 
be raised from its seat, thus opening the complete throttle valve 
its full amount. The valves also close one at a time, the valve 
B closing first. 

6. Vogt Throttle Valve. —A style of throttle valve used 
quite extensively on the Pennsylvania Railroad is shown in 
Fig. 4, in which (a) is a section through the middle of the 
valve and throttle pipe, and (6) is a plan view showing part of the 
valve case broken away. The valve, which is marked A, is 
ground to a steam-tight fit on its seats a and b, and is made 
of such a form that it is as nearly balanced as practicable. 
The stem c works in the guide d, which insures the valves seat¬ 
ing properly. When the throttle is open, steam flows between 
the valve and its seats a, b, as shown by the arrows in view (a). 

7. Throttle Lever. —The throttle valve is operated by 
means of a bell-crank lever, one arm of which connects with 
the valve stem, and the other with the throttle stem. The 
throttle stem must pass from the inside to the outside of the 
boiler, and it is made to work steam-tight by means of a 
stuffingbox placed either in the back head of the boiler or on 
the side of the dome, or, in some instances, on the top of the 
boiler. The throttle stem is connected with the throttle lever 
by means of which the engineer operates the throttle valve. 

Fig. 5 shows a form of throttle lever that is suitable 
for engines in which the throttle stem passes through the side 
of the dome. View (a) represents the throttle lever as seen 
from the back end of the boiler. It shows how the lever is 
supported by the stand S, which rests on, and is securely 
fastened to, the top of the boiler. View (6) is a plan of the 
throttle lever, while view (c) is a sectional view of the stuffing- 
box B in the stand S. It will be observed that, as usual, one 
end of the stuffingbox has been bored out to receive the 
packing and the gland G. The other end is bored out and 
tapped, and a wrought-iron pipe P screwed into it. This pipe 
is long enough to reach from the stand S to the dome, and it 
has a brass flange screwed on to its end, which is riveted to 
the outside of the dome, as in Fig. 2. The bore of the pipe P 





§8 STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 


9 


is made larger than the diameter of the throttle stem that 
passes through it, so as not to interfere with the free movement 
of the latter, the pipe acting as a protection to the rod, and 
also enabling us to locate the stuffingbox inside the cab. 

The throttle lever consists of the lever proper, marked L , and 
the rack /?, latch A, link l, and handle C, which form a 
rq 


fM 



locking arrangement, by means of which the throttle can be 
locked in any position desired. The link D connects the 
throttle lever to the lug b on the stand S y and serves as a 
fulcrum for this lever. The rack R is keyed to the throttle 
stem s by the key Jc , as shown, and is connected to the throttle 














































10 STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. § 8 

lever by means of the pin d. It is provided with a number 
of teeth, the pitch of which is made as small as possible 
in order that the throttle valve may be opened or closed a 
very little at a time, thus giving a good regulation of the steam 
supply. 

'In the end of latch A are three or four teeth that engage 
with the teeth in rack R. A lug h, cast on the bottom of the 
latch, slides in a slot in the lever, and forms a guide for the 
latch. The latch is connected to the handle C by the link l , 
so that pressing the handle towards the throttle lever raises 
the latch and disengages it from the rack, thus leaving the 
lever free to move. Engaging the latch with the rack locks 
the lever in position. When the throttle lever is in the 
position shown in the figure, the throttle valve is closed. 
Pulling the lever outwards from the stand opens the throttle 
valve, the throttle being wide open when the lever is in its 
extreme outward position. 

8. Regain ding a Throttle Waive. —Whenever a throttle 
valve shows signs of leaking, it must be reground. To do 
this, emery is used, and the valve is ground on its seats until 
a perfect fit is obtained all around on both the upper and lower 
valve seat. Both disks should then be wiped clean of all 
emery, and the valve given sufficient extra turns to wear a 
polish on the valve and its seat. This insures a tight joint 
when under steam, since the expansion of the valve when 
heated is practically the same as the expansion of the seats. 
To determine whether the throttle is leaking, close the throttle, 
place the reverse lever in full gear, and open the cylinder cocks; 
a leak will be indicated by steam escaping from the cylinder 
cocks. The steam supply to lubricator should be shut off 
while making this test, or the steam coming from lubricator 
into steam chest will mislead one. 


STEAM PIPES. 

9. The steam pipes, as was explained in connection with 
Fig. 1, are located in thesmokebox—see E , E, Fig. 6, view (a)— 
and connect the T pipe with the steamways a, b in the cylinder 






§8 STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 


11 


saddle that lead to the steam chests. The steam pipes are 
made to conform quite closely to the shell of the smokebox, for 
the reason that they are then removed from in front of the flues 
as much as possible, and hence interfere the least with any 
work that may have to be done on the flues. Also, when so 
curved, the ill effects of the expansion and contraction, due 
to the great changes of temperature in the smokebox, are 
very much reduced. 

Owing to variation in the lengths of the steam pipes due to 
expansion and contraction, it is rather difficult to keep the 
joints at the top and bottom ends steam-tight; it has been found 
that to obtain the best 
results, a form of joint 
must be used that has a 
certain amount of both 
flexibility and adjust¬ 
ability. Fig. 6, view (6), 
illustrates a form of 
joint that is now in 
general use. It is made 
by placing a ring r of 
brass or cast iron 
in the steam-pipe 
connection. When 
such a joint is used, 
the steam pipe can [ 
be moved slightly l 
on its seat in any x, 
direction without fig. 6. 

the joint leaking, while at the same time it is sufficiently 
flexible to take care of the contraction and expansion of the 
steam pipe. After being carefully ground in, this joint is 
bolted up, as shown. 

10. Leaky Steam Pipes. —A comparatively small leak 
in any of the joints of the steam pipes will make an engine 
steam badly (see Art. 31, Locomotive Boilers , Part 1). For this 
reason the steam-pipe joints must be kept perfectly steam-tight, 































12 STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. § 8 


being reground as soon as possible after a leak occurs. A leaky 
steam pipe is indicated by its effect on the fire and by the 
sound it makes, the sound being very similar, though less in 
volume, to that made by the blower. Also, the sound will be 
more distinct when the fire-door is open. To locate the leak, 
open the smokebox door, and then, with the reverse lever in 
mid-gear open the throttle slightly—the leak will be indicated 
at once by steam escaping. 


CYLINDER SADDLE AND CYLINDERS. 


THE CYLINDER SADDLE. 

11. Saddle Construction. —In order that the steam 
cylinders may be fastened rigidly together and secured firmly 
to the boiler, they are attached to a casting called a bedplate, or 
saddle , which is placed between them. Two methods of con¬ 
struction are used for fastening the cylinders together by means 
of a cylinder saddle. One (now seldom used), illustrated in 
Fig. 7 (a), consists in casting the cylinders A separately from 
the saddle B, and then fastening the cylinder to the saddle by 
means of bolts a, a passing through the flanges c; the other, 
illustrated in view (6), consists in casting one cylinder and 
half of the saddle in one piece. The two halves of the saddle 
are then bolted together by means of the bolts a and the 
flanges c. The latter method is the one most frequently used. 
It requires but one pattern for an engine, as a cylinder with 
its half saddle can be used for either side, there being no rights 
and lefts. Method (a) requires two patterns—one for the saddle 
and the other for the cylinders; one pattern serving for the 
two latter. 

12. Steam and Exhaust Passages. —A plan of a half 
cylinder saddle and cylinder is shown in Fig. 8, in which the 
steam chest and also the slide valve are removed to show 
the valve seat. A is the end of one of the steam passages in the 
cylinder saddle, one of which leads to each cylinder; it connects 
with one of the steam pipes, and leads by means of two branches 






§8 STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 13 

to the supply ports x and y opening into the steam chest. 
The duty of the steam passage is to conduct steam from the 
steam pipe to the steam chest, admitting it through the ports 
x and y. B is one of the exhaust passages in the saddle, one 
of which leads to each cylinder. This passage connects the 




exhaust port c in the valve seat with the exhaust pipe in 
the smokebox. Its duty is to conduct the exhaust steam 
from the port c to the exhaust pipe. 

Fig. 9 shows a section of a cylinder and half saddle, taken 
through the port c and the passages A and R, Fig. 8. It shows 
the exhaust passage B from the exhaust port c to the end that 




















































Fig. 8. 



Fig. 9. 



























































































§8 STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 


15 


connects with the exhaust pipe; it also shows part of the steam 
passage A. This steam passage widens and divides into two 
branches, one passing on either side of the exhaust passage, 
as indicated by the 
dotted lines. B 

Fig. 10 shows the ' 
form of the passages; 
that is, if a core of 
each passage could be 
obtained, that of the 
exhaust passage would 
resemble view (a), and 
that of the steam pas¬ 
sage would resemble 
view (6). In view (a), 

B is the end to which 
the exhaust pipe is 
connected, while c is 
the exhaust port in 
the valve seat. The 
steam passage, it will 
be observed, divides 
into two branches that 
connect with the ports 
x and y in the valve 
seat. In their regular 
positions, the steam- 
passage core would 
straddle the exhaust- 
passage core, one of 
the branches being on 
either side. 

In Fig. 11, the cyl¬ 
inder saddle and cyl¬ 
inder are represented 

as being transparent, so as the more clearly to show the actual 
relative positions of the steam passage A and the exhaust 
passage B. The steam ports a and b in the valve seat, the 



Fig. 10. 















16 STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. §8 


former of which is situated between the exhaust port c and the 
supply port x , and the latter between the exhaust port c and 
the supply port y (see Fig. 8), have here been purposely 
omitted so as to make the figure clearer. It will be observed 
that steam passes from the steam pipe A to both of the supply 
ports x and y. 

It may be mentioned that there are several reasons for 
branching the steam passage A in the manner here shown: 



Fig.11. 


first , it results in the steam being supplied to both ends of the 
steam chest, in consequence of which the steam can pass equally 
well into either end of the cylinder; second , the cylinder and 
half saddle for each side of the locomotive can be made from 
the same pattern; and third, the cylinders can be used 
interchangeably. 






































8 STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 


17 


CYLINDERS. 

13. The cylinders are cast from a grade of cast iron that 
is both hard and homogeneous in structure. The iron should 
be as hard as can be conveniently worked during the processes 
of boring, planing, drilling, etc., in order that it may better 
resist the wearing effect of the piston and the slide valve; it 
should be homogeneous in order that it may wear equally. 
The cylinders are counterbored at each end about inch larger 
in diameter than the diameter of the cylinder; the width of the 
counterbore being such that the near piston ring will overtravel 
it a short distance at either end of its stroke. The object of the 
counterbore is to prevent the formation of a shoulder in the 
cylinder at the end of the piston travel, which would be objec¬ 
tionable if the range of piston travel should be changed when 
letting together the brasses of the main rod. The cylinder heads 
are ground in with oil and emery until they make a steam-tight 
joint with the cylinder flanges, to which they are secured by 
means of stud bolts. To prevent radiation of heat, the body 
of the cylinder is covered with lagging, while the head and 
steam chest are provided with a casing. The lagging usually 
consists of a layer of asbestos, magnesia, wool felt, or some 
similar substance that is a poor conductor of heat, held prop¬ 
erly in place and covered with a jacket of Russia iron. 


CYLINDER AND STEAM CHEST. 

14. In.Fig. 12 a sectional view of a locomotive cylinder 
and steam chest is given, in which C is the cylinder; P, the 
piston; S, the steam chest; and V, the slide valve, k and s are 
the front and back cylinder heads, respectively; ports a and b 
are called the steam ports; port c is the exhaust port, and d 
is the exhaust cavity in the slide valve; p is the piston rod, 
and j the valve stem, both of which work steam-tight through 
the packings m and n , respectively. The partitions / and g 
between the steam ports and the exhaust port are called bridges. 
The raised portion that is marked efgh is planed smooth 
and level, and forms the slide-valve seat. The steam ports a 
and b conduct steam both to and from the front and back ends 




18 STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. §8 

of the cylinder, respectively. The exhaust port c connects 
with the exhaust passage B, Fig. 8, which leads to the exhaust 
pipe, while the supply ports x and y connect with the steam 
passage A in the saddle, Fig. 8. 

On top of the steam chest is the steam-chest cover; stud bolts 
are screwed into the cylinder, and the steam chest and cover 



Fig. 12. 


bolted up together at one operation. Over the steam-chest 
cover is placed a thin casing, as shown in the figure. The Joint 
between the cylinder and steam chest and also that between the 
latter and its cover is made by means of a copper wire. 

The operation of a steam cylinder was fully explained in 
Art. 55, Part 1. 










































































§ 8 STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 


19 


DRIVING GEAR. 


ASSEMBLY OF PARTS. 

15. In Fig. 13 is illustrated 
the combination of parts which, 
considered together, form what is 
generally spoken of as the dri¬ 
ving gear of a locomotive. 
It consists (on each side of the 
engine) of the piston P, piston 
rod p, crosshead H f guides G , 
main rod M, side rod S } and 
cranks (7, of which Jc and c are 
the crankpins. The driving gear 
is exactly the same for both 
sides of the engine, with the 
exception that some of the parts 
are made rights and lefts. When 
steam is admitted to the steam 
cylinder, it exerts a force on the 
piston that causes it to move, 
and this movement is transmitted 
to the driving wheels through 
the medium of the main and 
side rods, causing the wheels to 
revolve. It will be seen that the 
action of the locomotive in caus¬ 
ing the driving wheels to revolve 
is similar to the action of a 
stationary engine in rotating the 
flywheel. In the locomotive, it 
may be remarked, the crank is 
cast as part of the driving wheel, 
whereas in the stationary engine, 
it is on the shaft or axle, being 
either solid therewith or else 
made separate and keyed on. 



Fig. 13. 




























20 STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. § 8 


THE STEAM PISTOK. 


OLD-STYLE PISTON. 

16. There is such a large variety of pistons in use, and 
they differ so greatly in construction, that it would be useless 
to attempt to describe them all; hence, only a few types will 


r rf (1 v 



fa) (b) 

Fig. 11. 


be illustrated, comprising one or two that have heretofore been 
widely used, together with others of more modern type. 

Figs. 14 and 15 illustrate two forms of pistons that have been 
used for a number of years, and are still in use to some extent. 
In Fig. 14, view (a) represents the front face of the piston, with 
half of the follower plate removed to show the packing springs 
and packing-bolts and nuts. View (6) is a section of the piston 
taken through its center. The body of the piston is made 
in two parts; that marked A is called the spider, and it is 
to this piece that the piston rod is attached by means of the 
key h. The piece marked B is called the follower plate. The 
two are secured together by means of the bolts 6, called the 
follower holts. These bolts screw into brass nuts c, fitted 
into recesses in the arms C. It is necessary to use brass nuts, 























§ 8 STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 


21 


because if the bolts were screwed directly into the spider, they 
would rust fast, and it would then be difficult to remove them 
to take off the follower plate. 



The piston is made to work steam- 
tight in the cylinder by means of 
the two packing rings r, r, which 
are held against the walls of the 
cylinder by the springs s, called 
packing springs, the tension of 
which can be regulated by means of 
the nuts n, n. The packing rings 
are of brass and contain grooves d, d 
filled with Babbitt. The ring e is 
made of cast iron, and its function 
is to transmit the pressure of the 
springs equally to the packing rings. 

The piston is held centrally in the 
cylinder by properly adjusting the tension of the springs. 

The piston shown in Fig. 15 is of simpler construction than 
that shown in Fig. 14, and is now more generally used. (Cor¬ 
responding parts of the pistons are marked by the same letters.) 
In this piston the packing springs s are done away with. The 



Fig. 15. 













































22 STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 


8 



spider and follower plate are, as before, made to fit loosely in 
the cylinder, the whole being made to work 
steam-tight by means of the packing rings 
r, r. These rings are of the Dunbar type, a 
type that has been used extensively in the 
past and is again coming into favor on many 
roads. A good idea of the oonstruction of 
this packing can be obtained from view (c). 
The packing consists of two rings, one d of 
L-shaped cross-section, and the other / of 
square cross-section. Each ring is cut into 
several sections (four in this case) and the 
pieces are made to break joints, as shown in 
view(c); a square piece g about 1 inch long 
is riveted in the middle of one of the 
L-shaped pieces so as to prevent the rings 
turning relatively to one another, and thus 
not breaking joints. The packing rings are 
held out against the walls of the cylinders when steam is not 
'being used by three round steel wire springs h, view (6). 


MODERN TYPES. 

17. Figs. 16 and 17 illustrate two pistons of more modern 
construction than those just described. Each is made in two 
parts, the spider A being of cast steel, and the ring B of cast 
iron; steel is used so as to decrease the weight of the piston as 
much as possible. The ring B of the piston shown in Fig. 16 
screws on to the spider, as shown, and the joint on the opposite 
side at j is riveted over to prevent the ring from working loose. 
The ring B, Fig. 17, is turned up inch smaller in diameter 
than the spider, and is then shrunk on. The ring and spider 
are fastened together with a number of bolts b that pass through 
the spider and also through lugs on the ring. The ring, at its 
bottom, is enlarged in width—about If times. This is done 
for the purpose of increasing the wearing surface without 
increasing the weight of the piston unnecessarily. In this 
design the cylinder heads conform to the shape of the piston, 


















§8 STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 


23 


so as not to increase the steam clearance space. Soft cast-iron 
packing rings r, r are used with both pistons, the rings being 
sprung into grooves provided for them 
in the ring B. By either of the foregoing 
constructions it is possible to make a 
piston equally as strong as the ordinary 
form, while at the same time it is con¬ 
siderably lighter. 


METALLIC ROD PACKING. 

18. Advantages of Metallic 
Packing.— The piston rod is made to 
work steam-tight through the cylinder 
head by the use of some form of packing. 

Formerly, piston-rod packing consisted 
simply of some fibrous material, as, for 
example, hemp, but the modern practice 
is to use a metallic packing, which is 
less liable to blow out and also reduces 
the friction and, consequently, the wear 
There are several forms of metallic packing in general use, 
among which are the United States and the Jerome. 

19. United States Metallic Packing. —A sectional 
view of this metallic packing is shown in Fig. 18. It consists 
of the gland C that is bolted to the stuffingbox S , some Babbitt 
rings, and a spring, suitably arranged. A steam-tight joint is 
made between the gland C and the stuffingbox S by means of the 
two gaskets n, n. The packing consists of the three Babbitt 
rings c, d, and e contained in the vibrating cup b , the interior of 
which is in the form of a cone. One face of the brass ring a is 
turned spherical, so as to form a joint with its seat similar to a 
ball joint, while the other face is flat and forms a flat joint with 
the cup b. The brass ring /, called the follower , bears against 
the face of the ring e, so that the tension of the spring g is 
always exerted to keep the packing rings, vibrating cup 6, and 
the ring a in position. This tendency of the spring and of the 



on the piston rod. 




















24 STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. §8 

steam to force the rings into the cup b and cause the rings to 
contract in diameter and grip the piston rod hard enough to 
make a steam-tight joint. The function of the spring g is 


to hold all the parts 
in place during the 
return stroke of 
the piston when the 
back end of the 
cylinder is open to 
the exhaust. It will 
be observed that 
only the Babbitt 
rings come in con¬ 
tact with the piston 
rod; also, that the 
packing may have 
a direct sliding 
movement upon the 
face between the 
cup b and ring a; 
or it may have a 



Fin. 18. 


rocking motion between the ring a and the cap C; or it may 
have both motions at the same time, so that the packing will 
not cramp on the rod. 0 is an oil cup that feeds into the swab 
cup A, i being the swab. 

Fig. 19 is a section of the metallic packing as applied to a 
valve stem. It will be seen that this is practically the same 
as the piston-rod packing, but few changes being necessary to 
adapt it to the valve stem. A babbitted bushing j is placed 
in the stuffingbox to sustain the weight of the stem and yoke, 
and, as this is liable to wear the valve stem, the cap O must be 
lengthened sufficiently for the packing to be beyond the worn 
spot in the valve stem V, otherwise, the worn spot would cause 
a leak. The preventer i is made necessary by the lengthening 
of the cap C. 

20. Multiangular Packing.—An improved form of the 
United States metallic packing, known as the multi angular, 































8 STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 


25 


is shown in Fig. 20. Comparing this with Fig. 18, it will be seen 
that the improvement in the present packing lies in the bore 
of the vibrating cup b. In the old-style cup this bore is made 



parallel with the rod for some distance, and then makes an 
angle of 35° with it. In the present cup the bore first forms an 
angle of 15° with the rod, and then one of 45°; hence the name 
multiangular. In the old-style cup, as the pressure of the steam 
and the spring g forces the packing rings into the cup, the 35° 
angle between the 
cup and the ring c 
causes that ring to 
contract more in 
diameter, and, 
hence, to grip the 
rod considerably 
harder than the 
rings d and e; con¬ 
sequently, the wear 
of the rings c and 
of the rod is greater 
than it would be 
were the grip of the rings more nearly equal. The two angles 
of the improved cup are intended to overcome this defect, for, 






































26 


STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. §8 


as the rings are forced forward, the two angles cause all three 
rings to contract in diameter. A packing of the old type may 
be changed to the present form by removing the cup and rings 
and inserting those of the new type in their place. 


21. Jerome Metallic Packing. —A sectional view of the 
Jerome metallic packing is shown in Fig. 21 (a), while in 
(6) one of the packing rings is shown open, ready to be closed 



Fig 21. 

around the piston rod without disconnecting the rod from the 
crosshead. In the figure, P is the piston rod; C, the gland, or 
cap; S, the stuffingbox; b, the cone or packing case; e, e, the 
packing rings; /, the follower; h, the back bushing ring that 
forms a seat for the spring g\ k, k are ground joints between the 
flange of the cone b and the cap and stuffingbox; l is a swab 
case, and s a swab for wiping and lubricating the piston rod. 
The packing rings e, view (6), are split so that a rod can be 
packed without uncoupling it. The Jerome valve stem pack¬ 
ing is similar to the United States packing, except that it is 
provided with a heavy brass setscrew for clamping the valve 
stem if the engine is disconnected. This setscrew is similar to 
the one shown at a, Fig. 19, except that it is long enough to 
reach the stem when the oil cup, or washer, is taken off. 

22. Harthan’s Metallic Packing.— A new form of 
metallic packing, called Harthan’s metallic packing, after 
its inventor, Mr. F. E. Harthan, is shown in Fig. 22. While this 












§8 STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 27 


packing differs slightly in construction from those just described, 
its principle of operation is the same, and for purposes of com¬ 
parison, corresponding parts of the three forms of packing are 
marked with the same letters. The spring g in this packing 



( b ) Fl o. 22. (a) 

consists of a number of small spiral springs set in holes drilled 
in the back bushing ring h. The packing rings e , e consist of 
rings made of gun metal or bronze, and divided as shown in 
views (ft) and ( c ). They are held together by means of a small 
spiral spring s, which thus allows the packing to be renewed 
without taking the rod down. The four rings e are placed 
so as to “break joint,” thus preventing leakage of steam 
through them. 


CROSS HEAD AND GUIDES. 


FUNCTION OF CROSSHEA1) AND GUIDES. 

23. Referring to Fig. 13, it will be seen that when the 
engine is running forwards, the action of the main rod tends to 
bend the end of the piston rod upwards —pushing it upwards 
on the outward stroke, and pulling it upwards on the return 
stroke. On the other hand, when running backwards, the 






28 STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. § 8 


tendency is to bend the piston rod downwards during both 
strokes of the piston. It is to prevent this bending of the 
piston rod, and to compel it to move in its true course, that an 
engine is provided with crosshead and guides. The crosshead 
pin, or wristpin, also forms a flexible connection between the 
piston rod and the main rod. 


TYPES OF CROSSHEADS AYD GUIDES. 

24. Several types of crossheads in general use are illustrated 
in Figs. 23, 24, and 25, in which corresponding parts are 



designated by the same letters. Fig. 23 illustrates a type 
sometimes spoken of as the locomotive crosshead; view (a) is a 

























































§8 STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 29 

plan; view (6) is a side elevation with the guides 1 , 2 y and the 
near half of crosshead removed so as to show the main-rod con¬ 
nection; while view ( c ) is a section of the crosshead as seen 
from the back end. 

The crosshead C is made either of iron or steel. In the 
type shown in Fig. 23, in which four guides 1, 2, 8, ^ are 
employed, C is sometimes cast solid with the wings s and 
wnstpin w , and is then preferably made of cast steel; or it 
may be made up in parts, as in the present case, the cross¬ 



F 

w 

m 

^rj-J 

ij 

i 

s§3 

M 

$ _ ) 



head body being of wrought iron or steel, the wings of cast 
iron, and the wristpin of wrought iron or steel. The wrist- 
pin here is made of steel. It is turned up to diameters, 

one small one to fit the crosshead on one side, the wrist- 

pin diameter, and a larger diameter for the other side of 

the crosshead; the pin is then pressed into place. The brass 

strips j are called gibs. The piston rod P is secured in 

















































































30 


STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 


8 


the crosshead by the key Jc, while the main rod is coupled up 
to the wristpin as shown. 

The front ends of the guides are attached to the back cylinder 
head, while the back ends are secured to the guide yoke g , 




which is bolted to the engine frame. The guides are set paral¬ 
lel to the center line of the cylinder, both horizontally and 
vertically, so that the crosshead may move in a straight line 
coincident with axis of cylinder and thus avoid bending the 
piston rod. Guide blocks b are fitted between the guides at 
each end, the whole being bolted together, as shown. These 
keep the guides a certain distance apart, and, as the latter wear, 
the blocks are reduced so as to compensate for the wear. 



Or if liners are put in at the beginning, one or more may be 
removed to bring the guides together, or, if one liner only is 
used, it may be either reduced in thickness or else replaced by 
a thinner one. A small groove e is cut across the wearing 


























































§8 STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 


31 


faces of the guides at each end in such a position that the 
crosshead will overtravel slightly, thus preventing the forma¬ 
tion of shoulders. The oil cups are marked o. 

The crosshead illustrated in Fig. 24 has only two guides, one 
above and one below the crosshead. That shown in Fig. 25 
has two guides also, but in this type both guides are above the 
wristpin. The illustrations show the construction of the cross¬ 
head clearly, so that no further description is necessaiy. 
A foim of crosshead having but one guide is illustrated in 
Fig. 26. This type, however, is not used as much as the 
other types. 


CONNECTING-RODS. 


FIHSTCTIOX OF THE CONNECTING-ROI>. 

25. The connecting-rods of a locomotive consist of the 
main rods and the side rods, the latter often being called 
parallel rods, or coupling rods. The main rods connect the 
crossheads with the crankpins of one pair of the driving wheels, 
these particular crankpins being called the main crankpins, or, 
simply, the main pins. The duty of the main rods is to 
transmit the thrust of the pistons to the crankpins, thus 
causing the driving wheels to revolve. By the use of side 
rods, two or more pairs of driving wheels can be used, and the 
adhesion of the locomotive increased accordingly.. The duty 
of the side rods is to couple the drivers together in such a way 
that the force transmitted by the main rods will be divided 
among them. 

The main rods on the American type of eight-wheeled engine 
are connected to the journal of the main crankpins next to the 
wheels, while the side rods are connected outside of the main 
rods. This arrangement permits of smaller main crankpins 
being used, since the force applied to the pin by the main rod 
has less tendency to bend it. On some engines—for instance, 
the mogul or consolidated—the front drivers are so far forward 
that the main rods cannot be connected to them. In all such 







32 STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. §8 


cases the side rods must be ‘connected to the journal of 
the main crank pins next to the wheels, the main rods being 
connected to the outside journal. 



IT 



Fig. 27. 
























































































§8 STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 


33 


MAIN RODS. 

26. Two forms of main rods are shown in Fig. 27. The 
first rod, view (a), is a solid bar of rectangular section, while 
the second, view (6), is fluted or grooved out until it has a 
section similar to the letter X. The former style has been used 
quite extensively, but the tendency now is to use the latter type. 

The ends of the rod are enlarged to form stub ends, the back 
end being made the larger of the two, on account of the main 
pin being of a greater diameter than the wristpin. The ends 
are each provided with bearings b, b (called brasses) that 
embrace the pins and are in halves, to provide a means of 
taking up the wear. These brasses are held in position by the 
straps s, 5, which are fastened to the rod itself by the bolts a, a. 
The bolts are turned to a driving fit, tapered slightly, and are 
secured in position by locknuts. The brasses are adjusted by 
means of the keys Jc, the key in the back end being held in 
place by the setscrew c, while that in the front end passes 
through a guard l, being secured in position by a setscrew as 
shown. The rods are provided with oil cups o, by means of 
which the lubricant is supplied to the journals. Liners (not 
seen in the figure) made of steel or wrought iron are inserted 
between the keys and the brasses, the object of which is to 
prevent the keys from cutting the softer metal of the brasses. 
The back-end brasses of the main rod are usually babbitted in 
recesses provided for that purpose. 


SIDE RODS. 

27. Side rods are usually made in the form of plain rect¬ 
angular bars (either wrought iron or steel) and provided with 
stub ends, as shown in Fig. 28 (a). The most modern practice, 
however, is to make them of steel, with an I cross-section, and 
provide them with solid ends, instead of tbe customary stub 
ends, as shown in Fig. 28 (6). The play, resulting from the 
wear on the brasses in the strap-end type rod, can be taken up 
by means of the key Jc, while in the solid-end type no pro¬ 
vision is made for taking up wear. The brasses in the latter 





34 STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. §8 




















































§8 STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS, 


35 


type are made in one piece, turned to the required diameter, 
and forced into position under considerable pressure; when 
they become worn they must be replaced by new ones. 

Sometimes the side-rod brasses are babbitted, and sometimes, 
especially when made of phosphor bronze, they are not, 
although the better practice is to babbitt them, as they are 
then less liable to heat. 


KEYING UP RODS. 

28, Main Rods. —Before attempting to key up the front 
end of a main rod, move the engine until the main rod on that 
side is on the bottom quarter, since, in case the wristpin is 
worn, the key will press the brasses against the largest diameter 
of the pin in this position. Key up the brasses snugly against 
the pin, but do not key too tight. Also, be sure the setscrew 
or other device for holding the key in position is set firmly 
before leaving the front end of the rod, as otherwise trouble 
may result. To key up the back end of the main rod, place 
the engine on that side on the dead center, and key up the 
brasses; the engine may then be turned until the main pin is 
slightly forward of the top quarter, to determine whether the 
rod has been keyed up too tightly. With the main pin just 
forward of the quarter, the brasses will press against what is 
sometimes the largest diameter of the pin (should it be worn 
out of true), and they should work sufficiently free in this 
position to avoid heating the pin. The brasses should never 
be so tight that they cannot be moved lengthwise on the pin 
freely by hand. 

29. Side Rods. —Before keying up the side rods, the 
engine should be placed on a straight piece of track and the 
wedges properly set up; the engine should then be placed on 
the dead center on the side that is to be keyed up. Key the 
main-pin brasses first, then the back-end brasses, and the 
front-end brasses last; do not key up too snugly, as it is far 
better to have side-rod brasses too loose than too tight. After 
keying up, try the rods at each pin to see if they are perfectly 
free on the pin, then place the engine on the other dead center, 





36 STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. §8 


and try the rods again to see if they are still free on the 
pins. Tighten all set screws or jam nuts, as the case may be, 
so that the keys will be held in position. Proceed in the same 
manner with the rods on the opposite side of the engine. The 
pins should be closely watched the first trip after keying up an 
engine, and the rod cups should feed freely to guard against 
hot pins. 


THE VALVE GEAK. 


FUNCTIONS OF THE YALYE GEAR. 

30. By the valve gear of a locomotive is meant the 
mechanism that moves and regulates the motion of the steam 
valves, and, since there are two valves, there must be two sets 
of valve mechanisms, one for each valve. In order that a loco¬ 
motive may meet the requirements of railway service, its valve 
gear must be so arranged that the locomotive can run back¬ 
wards or forwards with equal facility, and it must provide a 
means of quickly reversing the direction of rotation of the 
driving wheels when necessary. Also, the mechanism of the 
»valve gear must be such that the cut-off can be readily varied 
by the engineer; that is, the engineer must be able, by means of 
the valve gear, to admit steam into the cylinders for only a 
small part of the stroke, or for nearly the whole length of the 
stroke, as circumstances may require. One of the most common 
forms of valve gear employed to perform these functions is that 
known as the link motion, and the form of link motion in 
most general use on locomotives is known as Stephenson’s 
link motion. 


ASSEMBLY OF PARTS. 

31. A view of the right-hand valve gear of a locomotive, 
as it would appear under the engine when looking at it from the 
left side, is shown in Fig. 29. Since the valve gear on the left- 
hand side of the locomotive is an exact duplicate of the right- 
hand gear, with the exception that they are pairs (i. e., are 
made rights and lefts), a description of the latter will suffice. 






§8 STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 37 


In the figure, A represents the driving axle, to which the 
eccentrics 1 and 2 are secured; S and 4 are the eccentric straps; 
5 and 6, the eccentric rods, or blades, as they are sometimes 



called; 7, the link; 8 and 9, 
the upper and lower rocker- 
arms; 10, the valve rod, which 
is connected to the upper 
arm; 11, the link hanger, by 
means of which the link 7 is 
connected to the “ horizontal ” 
arm 12 of the reverse shaft 13 
(sometimes called the tumbling 
shaft); U, the “vertical’ ’ arm 
of the reverse shaft; 15, the 
reach rod, the latter being con¬ 
nected to the reverse lever 16, 
which is situated in the cab 
of the engine; 17, the reverse 
quadrant; and 18, a counter¬ 
balance spring. The dotted 
circle P shows the position of 
the main pin. 


Fig. 







































38 STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. §8 


ECCENTRIC AND STRAP. 


THE ECCENTRIC. 

32. Function of the Eccentric. —It was shown in Art. 
57, Part 1, that if a crank were placed on the shaft of an 
engine, and a valve rod made to connect the crank with the 
slide valve, the valve would be given its proper to-and-fro 
motion, and the engine thus be made self-acting. Of course, 
a crank could very readily be placed on the end of the shaft 
(as in Fig. 5, Part 1), but if required to be in between the 
bearings, it would have to be made like K in that figure, and 
this, in view of the small motion required of the valve and of 
the relatively large diameter of shaft, is impracticable. 

The eccentric is a device employed to take the place of a 
crank in such a case as that just mentioned. The action of an 
eccentric is precisely the same as that of a crank; in fact, the 
eccentric may be said to be a peculiar form of crank, in 
which the crankpin is made large enough to embrace the 
shaft, to which it is attached. This statement will be more 
readily understood by referring to Fig. 30. Views (a) and (6) 
represent a crank in which the shaft has been contracted at the 
crankpin to form a pin that is smaller in diameter than the 
shaft. Views ( c ) and (d) represent a crank in which the crank¬ 
pin is much larger than the shaft. In both cranks, however, 
the center C of the crankpin revolves in the circle Cccc around 
the center s of the shaft when the latter is caused to rotate. 
Also, when the crankpin is large, as in views (c) and (d), the 
action of the crank will be the same whether the shaft is offset, 
as shown in (c) and by the dotted lines in (c), or made straight 
and secured to the crankpin, as in views ( e ) and (/), since in 
either case the center C of the crankpin will revolve in the 
circle Cccc around the center s of the shaft. From the fore¬ 
going it will be seen that the eccentric E , view (#), is nothing 
more nor less than an enlarged crankpin made separate from 
the shaft and fastened in place by some suitable means, and 
that its action is exactly the same as that of a crank, since its 





§8 STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 


89 


center O revolves around the center s of the shaft, as shown 
by the circle Cccc, view (h). 



33. Construction of Eccentric.—A standard form of 
eccentric is shown, with strap removed, in Fig. 31, in which (a) 















































40 


STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. §8 


is a side view, and (6) a plan. Usually, eccentrics are made of 
cast iron, although cast steel is now being used to some extent 
in their manufacture, steel being used in order that a lighter 
eccentric may be made without impairing its strength. Eccen¬ 
trics are sometimes made in one piece, or solid, although they 
are generally made in two pieces, to allow of their being 
readily attached to, or removed from, the axle in repairing. 

When made in two pieces, 
the parts are held solidly 
together by means of studs 
and nuts, or studs with split 
cotters. Eccentrics are fas¬ 
tened to the axle in vari¬ 
ous ways; in rare instances, 
simply by setscrews; in 
others, as in the figure, by 
a key k and setscrews s, s; 
and in others, by saddle 
keys (having teeth on their 
under side) held in place 
by means of setscrews, the 
saddle key being used to 
avoid cutting a keyway 
in the axle. The second 
method is the one now 
most generally used, how¬ 
ever, as the key prevents the eccentric turning on the axle, 
and the setscrews prevent motion lengthwise of the axle. 

The distance between the center C of the eccentric and the 
center S of the hole bored in it to receive the axle is called 
the eccentricity of the eccentric; in other words, considering 
the eccentric as a form of crank, the distance between the 
centers C and S may be con$idered as the length of its crank- 
arm. The throw of the eccentric is twice the distance between 
C and S (just as the throw of a crank is twice the length of its 
crank-arm), and is in this case equal to the diameter of the circle 
C Coe, Fig. 30. When an eccentric is on a driving axle, its 
throw may be determined by measuring the least distance a, 



(b) 

Fig. 31. 



















§8 STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 


41 


Fig. 31, and the greatest distance 6, between the axle and the 
edge of the eccentric, and subtracting the distance a from the 
distance b. The eccentricity, of course, will be just half this 
difference. 


ECCENTRIC STRAP. 

34. The eccentric strap is used as a suitable means 
of connecting the eccentric with the eccentric rod, so as to 



(b) 



transmit the motion of the former to the latter. Its duties 
are the same as those of the straps on the main rods or side 
rods of an engine. 

A modern type of strap is shown in Fig. 32, (a) being a 
side view and (6) a plan view. Eccentric straps are made 






































42 


STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. §8 


in two parts, of cast iron or steel, and are bolted together, as 
shown. The eccentric rod is securely bolted to the strap at E. 
Provision is made for an oil cup at A , the strap being broken 
away at that point to show the oil passage a through it. At B , 
a hole about 1J inches in diameter is drilled in the strap, as 
shown, and another smaller hole b is drilled from the inside 
face of the strap to meet it. The larger hole is filled w’ith 
waste saturated with oil, and serves as another oiling device. 
The metal of the strap is broken away at (7, also, to show the 
chamber A r , intended as a sort of oil cellar. Oily waste is 
introduced into the chamber by removing the plug <1 . 


THE EENK. 


FUNCTIONS OF THE LINK. 

35. The link is a simple piece of mechanism, but yet is a 
very important part of the valve gear of a locomotive; in fact, 
nothing has yet been devised that will, on the whole, perform the 
required duties more satisfactorily than the link. The duties 
of the link are twofold: first , it provides a means of readily 
reversing the engine, since by means of it the rocker can be 
quickly thrown under the control of one or other of the 
eccentrics; second , it provides a means whereby the admission of 
steam to the cylinders can be readily cut off* at different 
parts of the stroke. 


CONSTRUCTION OF THE EINK. 

36. Links are sometimes forged solid, in one piece, although 
usually they are of the built-up type similar to that shown 
in Fig. 33, in which (a) is a side view; (6), a front view; 
(c), a horizontal section through the middle of the link, the 

* In locomotives, steam is not admitted to the cylinders during the 
full length of the stroke, but is admitted during a part of the stroke 
only, the supply being cut off at some point of the stroke by the slide 
valve closing the steam port. Steam, therefore, is said to be “cut off” 
when the steam port is closed by the valve, and the point of cut-off is 
the point of the stroke at which the port is closed. 






§ 8^ STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 43 

upper half being removed; and (d), a view of the forward end/ 
of the eccentric rod, showing how it is forked to span the link, 
to which it is attached by the bolts a or 6. The faces of the 



two parts of the link L are shaped so as to make a curved slot 
in which slides the link block. This block (made up of 
parts 2, and 8) is attached to the lower rocker-arm R 

































































44 


STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. §8 


(marked 9 , Fig. 29) by means of the pin bolt P and the nut 
n, the link block being free to turn on the pin. The curved 
line xy, drawn through the center of the slot, is called the 
link arc. This link arc is part of a circle, and the radius 
of the link is equal to the radius of this circle. The radius 
of the link is generally taken equal to the distance between 
the centers of the link-block pin and the eccentric when the 
engine is in full gear, in which position the link-block pin is 
directly opposite the end of the eccentric rod. 

The link is curved for the purpose of making the valve move 
equal distances, on both sides of its center position, regardless of 
the position of the link. The length of the link is taken as the 
distance between the centers of the link-block pin when the 
block is in its two extreme positions in the link. A cross¬ 
piece S , called the link saddle, spans the inside face of the 
link, and is fastened to it by the bolts c , d. A pin s, called 
the saddle pin, is made solid with the link saddle, and is 
turned up to a free fit for the link hanger H , by which the link 
is carried. 


THE ROCKER. 

37. The slide valves of a locomotive are usually placed on 
the top of the cylinders, while the eccentrics are placed below 
the boiler between the frames, so that it is impossible to obtain 
a straight connection between the eccentric rods and the valve 
stem. The connection is therefore made by means of a 
rocker, Fig. 34, having two arms called rocker-arms, attached 
to a short shaft called a rocker-shaft. In the figure, 8 is the 
upper, and 9 the lower, rocker-arm; S is the rocker-shaft, and 
B the rocker-box. The rocker as a whole is held in position by 
the rocker-box, but the rocker-shaft is free to turn in the box. 
The valve stem is connected, by means of the valve rod, to the 
upper rocker-arm at V, while the end R of the lower arm 
connects with the link block; hence, any movement given to the 
end R of the lower arm by the eccentrics will be transmitted 
to V of the upper arm, but the direction of motion will be 
reversed. For instance, while the eccentrics are causing the 




§ 8 STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 


45 


end R to move from right to left, the end V is moving the slide 
valve from left to right; whereas, if the valve were connected 
directly to the eccentrics, the valve would be moved from right 
to left also. However, by placing the eccentrics in their proper 



Fig. 34. 


positions on the axle (in relation to the crankpin), this reversal 
of motion can be compensated for, and the valve will receive 
the required motion for admitting steam to, and exhausting 
it from, the cylinder at the right time. 


THE TUMBLING SHAFT. 

38. In order that a locomotive may be reversed, it is 
necessary that means be provided for raising and lowering the 
links. This is accomplished by means of a shaft, called a 
tumbling shaft, actuated by the reverse lever situated in the 
cab. The tumbling shaft is illustrated in Fig. 35, in which the 
horizontal arms (often called the lifting arms) of the shaft are 
marked 12, and the shaft itself 13. It will be observed that 
there are two horizontal arms, each arm being connected by a 
link hanger to the link on its side of the engine. The vertical 
arm H (often called the reversing arm) is connected, by means 
of the reach rod 15, to the reverse lever; hence, by moving 
the reverse lever in the proper direction, the engineer can either 

























46 STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. § 8 


raise or lower the horizontal arms 12, and thus raise or lower 
the links to which they are attached. A counterbalance spring 
18 is attached to the shaft, the pur¬ 
pose of which is to counterbalance 
the weight of the links, hangers, etc., 
and thus make the engine easier to 
reverse, the object being, in fact, to 
cause the reverse lever to move as 
easily in one direction as in the other. 



Fig. 35. 


Different types of counterbalance springs are used on engines, 
but whatever their type, their function is the same, namely, 
to counterbalance the weight of the links and hangers. 


OPERATION" OF THE VALVE GEAR. 


REVERSING THE ENGINE. 

39. By referring to Fig. 29, it will be seen that one eccen¬ 
tric rod 5 is connected to the top end, and the other 6 to the 
bottom end, of the link. The eccentric of the rod marked 5 is 
so set on the driving axle (relative to the main pin) as to cause 
the forward movement of the engine; hence, it is called the 
forward-motion, or go-ahead, eccentric; the eccentric of the 
rod marked 6 is so set as cause the backward movement, and, 
consequently, is called the backward-motion, or back-up, 
eccentric. The link block being connected to the lower rocker- 
arm 9 , remains stationary with respect to the rocker, but the 
link can either be raised or lowered from its mid-position by 









§8 STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 47 


means of the tumbling shaft operated by the reverse lever. 
When the reverse lever is moved to the forward corner (as far 
forward on the quadrant 17 as possible), the tumbling shaft is 
moved so as to lower the link to the position shown in Fig. 29, 
in which position the link block is directly opposite the end of 
the go-ahead eccentric rod 5 and receives its motion direct from 
that rod, consequently it moves with the rod. The movement 
thus given to the rocker causes the slide valve to admit steam 
to, and exhaust steam from, the cylinder in such a manner as 
to make the engine move forwards. When the reverse lever is 
placed in the back corner (the position shown by the dotted 
lines 16", Fig. 29), the link is raised until the end of the back¬ 
up eccentric rod is directly opposite the link block. The rocker 
then receives its motion direct from the back-up eccentric, so 
that the slide valve is caused to reverse its motion and admit 
steam to, and exhaust it from, the cylinder in such a manner 
as to make the engine move backwards. 

When the reverse lever is in the forward corner and the link 
block is in a position opposite the end of the go-ahead eccentric 
rod, as in Fig. 29, the engine is said to be in full gear for¬ 
ward; when the reverse lever is in the back corner and 
the link block is opposite the end of the back-up eccentric rod, 
the engine is said to be in full gear backward. When the 
reverse lever is moved to the middle position (marked 16', 
Fig. 29), the link is raised until the link block is at the middle 
point of the link and midway between the ends of the go-ahead 
and back-up eccentric rods. In this position the engine is 
said to be in mid-gear. If the link block is half way between 
mid-gear and full gear, the engine is said to be in half gear 
forward or backward, depending on whether the block is above 
or below mid-position. 

CHANGING THE POINT OF CUT-OFF. 

40. The point of the stroke at which steam is cut off from 
the cylinders (called the point of cut-off) is a very important 
point, since the economy with which the engine uses its steam 
depends, to a great extent, on that point. The cylinders of a 
locomotive are made sufficiently large to fully utilize the 





48 STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. § 8 

adhesive power that is exerted between the driving wheels and 
the rails, in order that the full adhesive power of the locomo¬ 
tive may be used in starting heavy trains and at other times 
when necessary. On account of this, when the engine is work¬ 
ing at less than full load, the cylinders would be too large for 
the work they are to do, were it not for the provision that is 


I 




made for varying the point at which steam can be cut off from 
the cylinders. 

The point of cut-off can be altered by changing the travel of 
the valves;* the travel of the valve can be altered by means of 
the reverse lever, moving the link either from full gear toward 

*The travel of the valve is the total distance the valve moves in 
either direction of its strokes, that is, it is the total distance traveled 
by the valve from the time the valve changes its direction of motion to 
make the forward stroke until it changes its direction on the return stroke. 










§8 STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 49 


mid-gear or from mid-gear toward full gear; hence, moving 
the links either toward full gear or toward mid-gear alters the 
point of cut-off. 

The motion that the link derives from the eccentrics is some¬ 
what complex. Being suspended by the link hanger ii, 
Fig. 29, the link is made to oscillate about the saddle pin p, 
as shown in view (a), Fig. 36, while at the same time it also 
swings like a pendulum on the link hanger, this latter move¬ 
ment making the link-block pin move in the arc of a circle a 
short distance on either side of its center position, as indicated in 
view (6), Fig. 36. Now, if the valve gear were to be placed 
in mid-gear, the link-block pin, and hence the end of the lower 
rocker-arm, would travel back and forth a distance equal to 
that between the points e and /, view (6), and the slide valve 
would be moved back and forth on its seat a corresponding 
distance. If the valve gear were to be placed in full gear 
(either forwards or backwards), the link-block pin and, hence, 
the end of the lower rocker-arm, would travel back and forth a 
distance equal to that between the points a and b, which, 
neglecting the slip of the link block in the link, is equal to the 
throw of the eccentric, and the slide valve would be moved on 
its seat a corresponding distance. If the valve gear were to 
be placed in half gear (either forwards or backwards), the 
link-block pin and the end of the lower rocker-arm would move 
back and forth a distance equal to that between the points c 
and d, and the valve would have a corresponding travel on 
its seat. It will thus be seen that: when the engine is in 
mid-gear the valve will have the least travel; the valve travel 
will be increased by moving the reverse lever toward either 
corner, or decreased by moving it toward mid-gear; and the 
travel of the valve is greatest when the engine is in full gear; 
hence, moving the reverse lever toward the corner increases the 
cut-off, while moving it toward the center of the quadrant 
(hooking her up), decreases the cut-off. It will be observed, 
also, that with the link block in any position in the link 
above mid-position, the engine will move forwards; while 
with the link block below mid-position, the engine will run 
backwards. 




50 STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 




SLIDE VALVES. 


THE ORDINARY D YALYE. 


GENERAL DESCRIPTION. 

41 . Construction.— A section of a D slide valve is shown in 
Fig. 37 in its central position, that is, in such a position that the 
center line of the valve coincides with the center line of the 
exhaust port c in its seat. A similar valve is illustrated in Fig. 4, 

Part 1, and its ac¬ 
tion is clearly ex¬ 
plained. However, 
if the two valves 
just mentioned be 
compared it will be 
observed that they 
differ somewhat in 
construction. 11 
will be observed 
that the flanges 1 
and 1 of the slide valve illustrated in Fig. 4, Part 1, are of the 
same width as the steam ports a and b in the valve seat; hence, 
when the valve is in mid-gear these flanges just cover the ports. 
Now, referring to the series of diagrams in Art. 58, Part 1, it 
will be seen that a valve like that just referred to admits steam 
to the cylinder for the full length of the stroke; consequently, 
there is no “cut-off,” and, hence, no expansion of the steam. 
Using steam for the full stroke is a very wasteful practice; it 
has been found that, among other advantages, a considerable 
saving in coal can be effected by admitting steam to the cylin¬ 
ders for a part of the stroke only, and then cutting off the 
supply, allowing the steam in the cylinder to expand during 
the remainder of the stroke. When this latter practice is 
followed the steam is said to be used expansively. 

As is well known, steam is used expansively in locomotive 
service, but in order to do so the slide valve used must be made 





















§8 STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 


51 


of different proportions (relative to the arrangement of the 
ports) from that shown in Fig. 4, Part 1. A locomotive slide 
valve is shown in Fig. 37; it will be seen that the flanges are 
made considerably wider than the width of the ports a and b, 
instead of being of the same width as in the valve just 
referred to. The inside edges have only been slightly extended, 
so that the valve overlaps the bridges but a small amount; 
the outside edges of the flanges, on the other hand, have been 
extended until the flanges overlap the ports considerably. 

42. Dap and Clearance.— The amount y or z that the 

valve, when in mid-position, overlaps the bridges e and / is 
called the inside lap of the valve; the amount w or x that the 
valve overlaps on the outside is either called the outside lap, 
the steam lap, or simply the lap. The object of giving a 
valve outside lap is to enable the engine to work steam expan¬ 
sively. After cut-off occurs, the steam in the cylinder is 
allowed to expand until the valve travels a distance equal to the 
sum of the inside 
and outside lap, 

whereupon the 
valve connects the 
steam port with 

the exhaust port, 

and release occurs. 

Inside lap, it will 
be seen, delays the 
exhaust of steam 
and increases the 
compression; hence, high-speed engines usually have no inside 
lap, as it would create too great a back pressure on the piston. 

The slide valve shown in Fig. 4, Part 1 has neither inside 
nor outside lap; that shown in Fig. 37 has both inside and out¬ 
side lap. The valves on some engines have outside lap, but no 
inside lap—the inner edge of the valve in that case being flush 
with the inner edge of the steam port, as in Fig. 4, Part 1: On 
other engines, the inner edge of the valve is cut away so that 
there is a space between the edge of the valve and the edge of 
















52 


STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. §8 


the port when the valve is in mid-position, as shown in Fig. 38. 
This space, marked u, is called the inside clearance, or 
simply the clearance of the valve. The effect of clearance is 
the reverse of that produced by inside lap; in other words, 
it makes the release occur earlier, and compression later, in 
the stroke. 


EVENTS OF THE STROKE. 

43. The Events Defined.—The action of a slide valve 
without inside or outside lap was illustrated in Fig. 6, Part 1, 
by a series of skeleton diagrams. A valve of this kind is in 
mid-position* when the engine is on the dead center, and Ob , 
which represents the valve crank or eccentric crank-arm, is 
therefore placed at right angles to, or “ square ” with, the main 
crank Oa (see diagram A). If, however, lap is added to the 
valve, the relative position of the eccentric crank-arm and the 
main crank has to be changed, resulting in a different relative 
motion of valve and piston. Lap also causes the steam port to 
be closed before the piston reaches the end of its stroke, and it 
brings about certain other events at different points of the valve 
stroke, these events being designated by the terms admission , 
cut-off, release , and compression. 

Admission, the point of the stroke at which steam is 
admitted to the cylinder, takes place at about the instant the 
piston commences its stroke (sometimes sooner, sometimes 
later), and it occurs when the outside edge of the valve is at 
the outside edge of the steam port, and is moving to open 
the port. 

Cut-off, the point at which the admission of steam to the 
cylinder is stopped, takes place when the valve arrives at the 
same position as above, but is moving to close the port. When 
at either admission or cut-off, the valve is displaced from its 
mid-position a distance equal to the lap of the valve; hence, 
when the travel of the valve from the mid-position is equal 
to the lap, the engine is either at admission or at cut-off. 

* Actually, it is not quite in mid-position, due to the angularity of 
the eccentric rod. J 





§8 STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 53 


Release, the point at which steam begins to exhaust from 
the cylinders, occurs when the inside edge of the valve is at 
the inside edge of the exhaust port, and the valve is opening 
to exhaust. 

Compression, the point at which the exhausting of the 
steam is stopped, occurs when the valve arrives at the position 
just mentioned, but is moving to close the port. At either 
release or compression, the valve is displaced a distance from 
mid-position equal to the inside lap of the valve; hence, when 
the displacement of the valve is equal to the inside lap, the 
engine is either at release or compression. 

Besides these four principal events, there are two other events 
of interest—the points at which the exhaust port and steam 
port are open their full amount. 

In order to better explain the effects of lap on the operation 
of an engine, a series of skeleton diagrams of a slide-valve 
engine having lap will be given, showing the relative positions 
of the piston, valve, etc. at the instant the events take place 
during a stroke of the engine. In these diagrams, as in those 
of Fig. 6, Part 1, the main crank-arm and the eccentric crank- 
arm have purposely been made longer than they should be, in 
order that the diagrams may be clearer. 


44. Admission, Front End. —The diagram shown in 
Fig. 39 represents the engine on the dead center, and just 



on the point of beginning the outward stroke. The piston is 
at the front end of the cylinder, and is about to move in the 
direction indicated by the arrow. The slide valve, it will be 
seen, is not in its mid-position, but is a distance beyond it 
equal to the lap, its front edge being at the edge of the front 
steam port. In this position, the valve is just on the point of 












54 STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. §8 


opening the port for admission of steam to the front end of 
the cylinder; hence, the diagram illustrates the point of admis¬ 
sion. When lap is employed, it is seen that the valve must 
have moved forward a distance equal to the lap by the time 
the piston reaches the end of stroke, since, otherwise, steam 
would not be admitted into the cylinders until some time after 
the piston had begun its stroke, and a considerable loss of 
power would result. 

Since the valve has been moved forwards from its mid¬ 
position, the eccentric arm Ob must be moved forwards a 
corresponding distance from its right-angle position 0 e also, or 
to the position shown in the figure. The angle eOb through 
which the eccentric crank-arm has been advanced is called the 
angle of advance. 

45. Steam Port Wide Open to Exhaust.— If the engine 
is moved off the dead center, steam will enter the front end of 
the cylinder and start the engine moving, as indicated by the 
arrows. Fig. 40 shows the position of the piston and slide 
valve when the engine has moved around sufficiently to cause 



the slide valve to open the steam port full to the exhaust. To 
thus open the port wide, the crankpin a has had to move through 
the distance fa , and the eccentric center b through the dis¬ 
tance g b. In this position of the valve, steam is still entering 
the front end of the cylinder and forcing the piston along, 
while the exhaust steam in the back end of the cylinder is 
exhausting to the atmosphere, as indicated by the arrow. The 
piston and slide valve are still moving in the same direction. 
Fig. 39 shows that the steam port is nearly wide open to the 
exhaust at the beginning of the stroke, while Fig. 40 shows that 









8 STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 


55 


it is opened wide very shortly after the beginning of the stroke, 
so that the opening to the exhaust is greatest when most needed. 

46. Steam Port Wide Open for Admission. —Fig. 41 
shows the position of the parts when the valve has opened the 
front steam port the full amount. In moving to this position, 
the main crank has moved through the distance / a, and the 



eccentric through the distance g b, Of and Og being their posi¬ 
tions when the back steam port was wide open to the exhaust, 
Fig. 40. The piston is still moving in the same direction, but 
the slide valve has reached the end of its stroke and is just on 
the point of having its motion reversed by the eccentric. Also, 
it will be noticed that the back end of the cylinder is still wide 
open to the exhaust. 

47. Cut-Off. —Fig. 42 marks the second important point 
of the stroke, namely, the cut-off. The slide valve, it will be 
seen, has traveled sufficiently on its return stroke to close 
the steam port for admission; hence, the supply of steam is cut 



off from the cylinder, and during the remainder of the piston’s 
stroke the steam in the cylinder is allowed to expand—at least 
until the port opens to exhaust. The back end of the cylinder, 
however, is still open to the exhaust. In moving to this posi¬ 
tion, the crank and eccentric have moved through the distances 
fa and gb , respectively. 














56 STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. § 8 


48. Compression.— Fig. 43 marks the third important 
event that occurs during a stroke. In this position the inside 
edge of the valve just closes the back steam port to exhaust, 
and for the remainder of the stroke the exhaust steam that is 
trapped in the back end of cylinder is compressed by the 
piston. This point of the stroke is called the point of com¬ 
pression. It will be observed that both steam ports are now 



covered by the valve; also that the piston is nearing the end of 
the outward stroke. The crank and eccentric have moved 
through the distances /a and g b. 


49. Release.—Still another important event of the stroke 
is indicated in Fig. 44. In order to reach this position, the 
crank and eccentric have had to move through the distances 
indicated (fa. and gb) y bringing the front inside edge of the 
valve in line with the inside edge of the front steam port. 
A slight movement of the valve to the left will open the front 
port so that the steam in the front end of the cylinder will 

S 

pass to the exhaust. This point of the stroke is therefore 
called the release. The effective pressure of the steam against 
the face of the piston is supposed to cease as soon as release 
occurs, but, owing to the fact that the steam in the cylinder 
cannot escape to the atmosphere instantly, there is a slight but 















§8 STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 


57 


decreasing pressure exerted on the piston during the remainder 
of the stroke. 

50. Admission, Back End. —In Fig. 45 the piston has 
reached the end of its outward stroke, and is about to begin the 
return stroke. The back outside edge of the valve is in line 
with the outside edge of the back steam port; hence, any 
movement of the valve to the front (i. e., to the left in the 
figure) will admit steam to the back end of the cylinder, and 



thus force the piston towards-the front end. The front port is 
nearly w r ide open to the exhaust, so that the steam in that end 
of the cylinder is still passing out to the atmosphere. The 
crank and eccentric have moved through the distances fa and 
gb , which brings them diametrically opposite the positions 
they occupied in Fig. 39. 

5 1. The Other Events of the Return Stroke. —During 
the return stroke the events take place in the same order as 
on the outward stroke; that is, when the piston has moved along 
sufficiently to cause the slide valve to finish its stroke to the 
front and return on its back stroke to the position shown in 
Fig. 45, cut-off will take place. As the piston moves still 
farther to the front, the front inside edge of valve will again be 
in line with the inside edge of the front steam port; hence, this 
port will be closed to the exhaust and compression will occur. 
As the piston proceeds on its stroke, the back inside edge of the 
valve comes in line with the inner edge of the back steam 
port, and release takes place. When the valve moves back¬ 
wards (i. e., to the right) far enough for the front outside edge 
of the valve to come in line with the outside edge of the 
front port, admission occurs at the front end. 








58 STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. §8 


EFFECTS OF CHANGING THE LAP. 

52. Outside Lap. —Changing the amount of outside lap 
on a valve produces changes in the distribution of the steam 
that can best be understood after a careful study of the dia¬ 
grams. For example, it is evident that' if the outside lap in 
Fig. 42 had been less than it is, the valve would not close the 
front port when its eccentric was in the position shown; conse¬ 
quently, the piston would have to move farther ba,ck before 
the valve would be moved far enough ahead to close the port. 
This would make the cut-off occur later in the stroke, and thus 
lessen the period of expansion. On the other hand, it will be 
seen that if the valve had more lap, it would overlap the port 
when the eccentric was in the position shown; this would 
cause the valve to cut off earlier in the stroke, and the period of 
expansion would be longer. Thus, it will be seen that increasing 
the outside lap brings about an earlier cut-off and increases the 
expansion, while decreasing the outside lap makes the cut-off 
later and lessens the expansion. 

53. Inside Lap. —Changing the inside lap affects the 
compression and release. From Fig. 43 it will be evident that 
if the inside lap had been made less, the back steam port 
would not have been closed so soon to the exhaust; conse¬ 
quently, the compression would have begun later in the stroke. 
Had the inside lap been made greater, the valve would have 
closed this port sooner; hence, compression would have begun 
earlier in the stroke. From Fig. 44 it will be seen that redu¬ 
cing the inside lap causes the valve to release the steam earlier 
in the stroke; whereas, by increasing the inside lap the valve 
will not uncover the port until it has moved a greater distance 
on its stroke, and hence release will take place later. It will 
be seen from the above that increasing the inside lap causes 
the compression to begin earlier and the release to take place 
later in the stroke. On the other hand, reducing the inside 
lap causes the compression to begin later and the release to 
take place earlier in the stroke. 



§ 8 STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 


59 


LEAD. 

54. Dead Defined. —Thus far in treating of the slide- 
valve engine, the movement of the slide valve relative to the 
piston has always been such that, with the engine on a dead 
center and the piston about to reverse its motion, the valve is on 
the point of opening the steam port to admission, as in Fig. 39. 
On some locomotives, however, the valve so moves relatively 



Fig. 46. 


to the piston that the steam port is open a small amount by 
the time the piston is at the end of its stroke; that is, instead 
of the valve being just at the edge of the port, as shown in 
Fig. 39, it has moved from * to T V inch farther from its mid¬ 
position, thus opening the steam port that amount. (These 
amounts^ are for full gear; the lead increases as the engine is 

hooked up.) . . 

When the steam port is open a small amount at the begin¬ 
ning of the stroke, the valve is said to have lead, such a 






































































60 


STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 


8 


case being shown in Fig. 46, where it will be noticed the piston 
is at the beginning of its stroke, and about to move to the rear, 
while the slide valve has moved beyond its mid-position so as to 
open the port a distance x. The distance a; is called the lead 
of the valve. Since the valve has had to be moved a little 
towards the back end, in order to give it lead, it is evident that 
the eccentric must be moved in the same direction on the axle 
(supposing there were no rocker); that is, to give a valve lead, 
the angle of advance must be increased. 

55. Effects of Lap and Eead on the Position of the 
Eccentrics.—By referring to the diagrams in Fig. 6, Part 1, 
it will be seen that when the slide valve has neither lap nor 
lead, the eccentric will make an angle of 90° with the crank. 
From Fig. 39, it will be seen that if the valve has lap, the angle 
that the eccentric makes with the crank will be greater than 90°, 
while if the valve has both lap and lead, the angle must be made 



still greater. By referring to Fig. 39, it will be seen (by following 
the direction of the arrows) that the crankpin a is following the 
eccentric pin b ; hence, when (as in Fig. 39) a rocker is not used, 
the eccentric must be set 90° plus the angle of advance ahead 
of the crank, in order to give the slide valve the proper relative 
motion. When a rocker similar to that in Fig. 47 is used, the 
valve rod / e and eccentric rod d b move in oppqsite directions. 
Consequently, to give the valve the proper motion, the eccen¬ 
tric, instead of being placed 90° plus the angle of advance 
ahead of the crank (at Ob ', Fig. 47), must be placed 90° minus 
the angle of advance behind the crank, namely at 0 b, Fig. 47. 
In other words, the eccentric must be moved around on the axle 
until it is in a position diametrically opposite the position it 
would occupy were the rocker not used. As the rotation of 













§8 STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 


61 




the driving wheels of a locomotive when running forwards is 
the opposite of that indicated by the arrow in Fig. 47, the go- 
ahead eccentric, in being placed 90° minus the angle of advance 


Fig. 48. 

behind the crank, will occupy the position Ob in Fig. 48; 
if there were no rocker, it would be at 0 b'. The back-up 
eccentric will, be placed 90° minus the angle of advance ahead 
of the crank. 

56. Relative Position of Eccentrics and Main Pin. 
It is very important that the position of the eccentrics 


relative to tlie main pin be clearly understood, and 
enginemen should inspect the eccentrics on their engines 
with a view of fixing this position in their minds. Knowing 































62 


STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. §8 


their exact position, it will be a simple matter, should an eccentric 
slip, to determine which one is out, and in what direction. 

The relative position of the left-side eccentrics to the main 
pin, as viewed from under the engine, is shown in Fig. 49. 
In the figure, the strap of the go-ahead eccentric is broken away 
so as to show the web d of the back-up eccentric more clearly. 
The center of the driving axle is at o, while a and b are the 
centers of the go-ahead and back-up eccentrics, respectively. It 
will be noticed that these centers are on the lines o x and o y — 
the center lines of the webs c and d. Also, that the angles of 
advance xo A and y o B of the eccentrics are equal, and are 
measured on the side towards the main pin; in other words, 
the angle zoa between the crank-arm oz and eccentric arm oa 
is 90° minus the angle of advance. The angular advance will 
vary with the lap, the lead, and the throw of the eccentrics, 
so that it is likely to be different in any two given engines; it is 
practically the same, however, for the four eccentrics of any one 
engine, thus causing the center lines ox 7 oy , etc. of the eccentric 
webs to incline equally towards the main pin. As the eccentrics 
are securely fastened to the axle, and the axle to the wheel, 
the relative position of the eccentrics to the main pin will 
remain the same whatever the position of the main pin. 


THE ALLEN VALVE. 


ITS CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION. 

57. It is very desirable that steam be admitted to the 
cylinders fast enough to maintain the pressure as near that in 
the boiler as possible during the whole period of admission, and 
anything that prevents this reduces the power of the engine 
correspondingly. With the ordinary form of slide valve, it is 
especially difficult to maintain the pressure when the cut-off is 
short, as is the case when running at high speeds. This is due 
to the fact that the travel of the valve must be reduced to 
shorten the cut-off, and, as a consequence, the valve opens the 
port such a small distance that steam cannot flow into the 






§8 STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 63 





cylinder with sufficient rapidity to maintain the pressure nearly 
constant during the whole period of admission. To overcome 
this difficulty, the Allen valve, so called after its inventor, 
was designed. 

In general design, the Allen valve, Fig. 50, is very similar 
to the ordinary D sfide valve, with the exception that it has 
a supplementary passage a a, which passes over the exhaust 
cavity and ends in two ports 6, b in the valve face. The valve 
is shown in mid-position in view (a). It has an outside lap 
equal to l , but no inside lap, having, instead, a small amount of 
clearance, as shown. In view (6) the valve is shown just as 
admission is about to take place. It will be noticed that the 
left outside edge of the valve is directly above the edge of 
the port A, while 
the right-hand out¬ 
side edge of the • 
supplementary port 
is flush with the 


edge c. Therefore, 
any movement of 
the valve to the 
right will cause 
steam to be ad¬ 
mitted into port A, 
both past the left 
edge of the valve 
and also through 
the supplementary 
port a a, as in 
view (c), thus ma¬ 
king a double open¬ 
ing for the admis¬ 
sion of steam. As 
the valve proceeds 
on its stroke, the left port b in the valve is closed by the left 
bridge e , view (a), but by the time this occurs the left steam 
port is opened far enough to admit steam as fast as it is 
required, and the supplementary port is not needed. 


(O 

Fig. 50. 




















64 


STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. § 8 


The advantage obtained by the use of this type of valve 
is greatest when the travel of the valve and consequent cut-off 
is short, since it then gives twice as much opening for the 
admission of steam as the ordinary valve does. Also, it opens 
the steam port at admission and closes it at cut-off at 
twice the rate of the ordinary valve, which is another very 
decided advantage. 


THE DOUBLE-PORTED VALVE. 


58. Fig. 51 represents sections of a slide valve of the Allen 
type, called by its inventor, Mr. C. J. Mellin, chief engineer 





of the Richmond 
locomotive works, 
the double-ported 
valve, in order to 
distinguish it from 
the Allen valve 
proper. The supple¬ 
mentary port a a is in 
this instance used as 
an exhaust as well as 
an admission port, 
and the valve is used 
on the low-pressure 
side of Richmond 
compound locomo¬ 
tives, in order to get 
as low a back pres¬ 
sure as possible with¬ 
out the use of large 
valves, small valves 
with short travel 
being more advan¬ 
tageous. The Allen 
valve doubles the port 
opening at admission, 
and also doubles the rate at which the port is opened and closed 
at admission and cut-off. The valve shown in Fig. 5i not 


Fig. 51. 












































§8 STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 


65 


only does this, but it also doubles the port opening at release, 
and opens the exhaust port at twice the rate of speed that 
the ordinary slide valve will. This is a very decided advan¬ 
tage at high speeds. 

In order that anything may be gained by increasing the 
exhaust-port opening, it must be increased at the very beginning 
of the exhaust period, so that the pressure of the exhaust steam 
will drop quickly, and as much as possible, before the piston 
begins its return stroke. It has been found that after a certain 
piston velocity has been reached, the back pressure* does not 
decrease during the return stroke; hence, the pressure of the 
exhaust steam should be reduced as much as possible before 
the beginning of the return stroke. 

The double-ported valve possesses another advantage under 
conditions that occur while the engine is drifting. As the 
piston moves toward the end of its stroke, a vacuum is created 
behind it, while the air ahead is compressed somewhat. The 
supplementary port in the valve is made to connect the two 
steam ports at the same instant that the exhaust port opens, so 
that the compressed air from one end of the cylinder passes, as 
indicated by the arrows in view (a), to the other end of the 
cylinder. This not only destroys the vacuum, but it also 
effects a decrease in the back pressure in the other end of the 
cylinder; hence, the final compression is much lower than it 
would otherwise be. 

In the figure, view (a) shows the valve in mid-position, the 
arrows indicating a flow of air from one end of the cylinder 
to the other. View (6) shows the valve at admission, the 
arrows indicating the direction of the flow of steam to and 
from the two ends of the cylinder. View (c) represents the 
valve in release position, and shows how the port opening 
for exhaust is increased at the beginning of release by the 
supplementary port a. 

* The exhaust steam exerts a pressure on the exhaust face of the 
piston that acts in opposition to the pressure of the live steam on 
the other face, and thus tends to stop the movement of the piston. 
This pressure is termed “back pressure.” 





66 STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 


§ 8 


BALANCED VALVES. 


THE NECESSITY OF BALANCING. 

59. Considerable power is lost by using a slide valve that 
has no provision made for balancing the pressure of the steam 
on it. This will be more readily understood if the force 
required to move the valve under steam pressure is considered. 
The resistance that must be overcome in moving the valve is 
due to the friction exerted between the valve and its seat, and 
this depends on, and varies directly with, the pressure of the 
valve on its seat.* By decreasing this pressure, the force neces¬ 
sary to move the valve will be decreased. The pressure of the 
valve on its seat is equal (neglecting the weight of the valve) 
to the total pressure of the steam on the back of the valve, less 
the upward pressure that the steam in the ports exerts on the 
face of the valve. The total downward pressure may be found 
by multiplying the pressuref of the steam acting on the valve 
by the area of the valve. Thus, a valve 11 inches by 20 inches, 
subjected to 180 pounds steam pressure, would sustain a total 
pressure of 11 X 20 X 180 = 39,600 pounds (19f tons) tending 
to hold it on its seat. However, the steam in the ports exerts 
a variable pressure upwards on the face of the valve, and this 
opposes the downward force and lessens the pressure of the 
valve on its seat. It will be seen, therefore, that it is very 
difficult to calculate the exact effective pressure of the valve on 
its seat; but with an 11" X 20" valve, it probably will average 
between 14 and 15 tons. 

Imagine a weight of 15 tons resting on the valve while it is 
being moved on its seat. To move it, a force of about 2,200 
pounds would be required, and, at the speed the valve must be 
moved, this represents an expenditure of considerable power, 
a great deal of which is unnecessarily wasted. Besides wasting 

* Of course, the friction also depends on the condition of the valve 
and its seat, the lubricant used, etc.; but the effect of pressure only will 
here be considered. 

t We refer to the gauge pressure; the fluctuation of the steam pressure 
in the steam chest is not considered here. 








§8 STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 


67 


power, an unbalanced valve causes greater wear of the valve, 
valve seat, eccentrics, links, rockers, etc., and it is much harder 
to handle by the reverse lever. To balance a valve, the total 
pressure on the valve is diminished by excluding the steam 
from a portion of the top of the valve. How this is done will 
be explained in connection with the Richardson and American 
balanced valves. 


THE RICIIARDSOX BALANCED VALVE. 

60. The Richardson balanced valve is illustrated in 
Fig. 52, in which (a) is a longitudinal section through the 
center of the steam chest; (6), a section through the center 
at right angles to the valve stem; (c), a view of the top of the 
valve, to show the arrangement of the grooves for the packing 
strips a, a and 6, 6; while (d) is a view of one of the end 
packing strips, showing the packing springs c, c. 

It will be observed that very few alterations in valve and 
steam chest are necessary to balance the valve, the only changes 
being the addition of a plate P called a balance plate, and a 
few slight changes in the slide valve. The balance plate, which 
in this case is bolted to the steam-chest cover by the bolts d, d, is 
often cast solid with the steam-chest cover, that is, the two form 
one piece. A small space is always left between the top of the 
valve and the bottom of the plate, in order that excessive 
pressure in the cylinder, from any cause, may be able to raise 
the valve a short distance off its seat, to relieve the pressure 
without injuring the cylinder heads. 

The only alterations necessary in the slide valves are the 
addition of the slots to receive the packing strips, and the small 
hole e drilled through the top of the valve into the exhaust 
cavity. The packing strips, it will be observed, view (c), 
enclose a rectangular space C\ from which they exclude the 
steam. This space is made equal in amount to the area of 
valve surface that it is desirable to relieve of pressure. The 
small hole e in the top of the valve connects the space C with 
the exhaust port; hence, any steam that may leak past the 
packing strips will pass to the atmosphere, and thus any 
accumulation of pressure in the space above the valve is 





68 STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. §8 



prevented. Aspring 
similar to c, view 
(d), is placed under 
each packing strip, 
to hold it up against 
the balance plate 
£ when steam is shut 
off. When the 
steam chest is filled 
with steam, the 
steam forces the 
packing strips 
against one another; 
against the inside 
edges of the slots, 
which are made 
perfectly true; and 
up against the 
£ balan ce plate 

against which they 
slide, so that they 
are held in steam- 
g tight contact by the 

direct action of the 
steam. This method 
of balancing can be 
used with either the 
plain D valves or the Allen type 
of valve. 




61. The Richardson Relief 
Valve. —A relief valve R is used 
to prevent a vacuum forming in the 
steam chest and cylinders when run¬ 
ning with steam shut off. A view 
of the Richardson relief valve 
is shown in Fig. 53, in which part 
of the casing is broken away to show 





















































































§8 STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 


69 


the check-valve v. The valve is screwed into the front end of 
the steam chest, so that the chamber below the valve v com¬ 
municates, by means of the passage x, with the steam chest. 
The chamber above the valve communicates with the atmos¬ 
phere through the openings a in the valve case. When the 
engine is working steam, the valve v is held against its seat b by 
the steam pressure beneath it; but when steam is shut off, the 
valve drops down and allows air to enter the steam chest 



Fiu. 53. 


through the openings a, valve v , and passage x. The curved 
wings c are so arranged that they turn the valve slightly in 
closing, thus causing it to seat in a new position each time, 
keeping the wear uniform, the result being that the valve 
remains steam-tight for a longer period of time than it other¬ 
wise would. Sometimes a combined pressure and vacuum relief 
valve i3 used, one of the valves preventing an excessive pres¬ 
sure, and the other preventing a vacuum, from being formed. 


THE AMERICAN BALANCED VALVE. 

62. Another form of balanced valve, known as the Ameri¬ 
can balanced valve, is shown in section in Fig. 54, while 
the valve disk and packing ring are shown in perspective in 
Fig. 55. P is the balance or bearing plate, against which the 






70 


STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. §8 


packing ring makes a steam-tight joint as it moves back and 
forth. The packing ring a is depended on to form a steam- 
tight joint between the valve disk D and the balance plate P, 
so as to exclude the pressure from the top of the valve. This 



ring, which is made circular in form, has its inner face beveled 
to suit the bevel of the cone c on the disk D , on which the 
ring is placed. The ring is cut at one point to make it flexible, 
and the joint thus made is covered by the joint 'plate b of 
L section, which makes a steam-tight joint with the balance 
plate at the top, and with the beveled face of the cone below 
the ring. The piece b is fastened to one end of the ring only, 
so that the ends of the ring are free to come and go. The 
ring is turned up slightly smaller in inside diameter than is 
required when it is in its regular position, so that when it 
is forced to position in putting on the steam-chest cover, it is 
expanded slightly by the beveled face of the cone. By 
expanding the ring, it is put in a state of tension, so that it 



tends to squeeze the cone and close up, but owing to the bevels 
on the ring and cone, this tendency causes the ring to slide 
up and press against the balance plate. The elasticity of the 
packing ring, therefore, holds the ring up in position when 







































§8 STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 


71 


steam is shut off. When steam is admitted to the steam chest, 
it exerts a force on the entire outside face of the ring that 
tends to close the ring or decrease its diameter. This causes the 
ring to press even more firmly against both cone and balance 
plate, which insures a steam-tight joint between the parts. 


PISTOL VALVES. 

63. Construction of Piston Valves. —As will be seen 
by referring to Fig. 57, the piston valve V derives its name 
from its form, being composed of two pistons connected 
together by a stem. The piston valve differs in form from the 



types of valves already described; when properly made and 
fitted in its bushing, it makes a valve that is practically 
balanced and that is well adapted for certain kinds of work. 

Fig. 56 represents a section through the saddle and cylinder 
of a locomotive fitted with piston valves, in which V represents 
the piston valve; C\ the cylinder; E, the exhaust; and S, the 
steam passages. Now, suppose the saddle and cylinder to be 




























72 STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 


8 


cut on the lines x y and y z, and the top piece removed; if we 
were to look down on the bottom piece, we should see a section 
like that shown in Fig. 57. In Fig. 57, E is the exhaust 
passage; S , the steam passage; while A is simply a cavity in the 

casting between the two. 


It will be observed that 
when this form of valve 
is used, the exhaust pas¬ 
sage branches and com¬ 
municates with the ends 
of the steam chest, while 
the steam passage com¬ 
municates witji the cen¬ 
ter—just the reverse of 
the way they connect 
when an ordinary form 
of slide valve is used. 
It will be observed, also, 
that the cavity c in the piston valve V is not an exhaust cavity; 
on the contrary, it is filled with live steam, since it connects 
directly with the steam passage S. This type of piston valve 
is known as an “internal admission” valve. 



64. Operation of Valve.— As presented in Fig. 57, the 
valve has just completed its backward stroke (i. e., to the right), 
and is on the point of reversing its motion. Steam, therefore, is 
flowing into the back end of the cylinder through port b , while 
the exhaust steam in the front end is flowing out to the exhaust 
through port a , as indicated by the arrows. When the valve 
moves to the end of its forward stroke, steam will flow from 
the cavity c through port a into the left end of the cylinder, 
while the exhaust steam in the back end will flow from port b 
into the right leg of the exhaust passage E. A valve is said to 
be a direct valve when it opens the front port for the admis¬ 
sion of steam by moving to the rear, and closes it by moving to 
the front. The piston valve here shown is therefore said to 
be an indirect valve, and it will be seen that the direction of 
its motion must he the opposite of that of a direct valve; 



































§8 STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 


73 


hence, the eccentric for an indirect valve must be set on 
the axle directly opposite the position it would have were 
it operating a direct valve. In other words, when a rocker sim¬ 
ilar to that shown in Fig. 47 is used in connection with an 
indirect valve, the eccentric should be set ahead of the crank at 
an angle equal to 90° plus the angle of advance. 

65. Effect of Wide Packing* Rings. —The piston valve 
is always spoken of as a u balanced” valve, and a great many 
people seem to believe that it is perfectly balanced; but the 
statement is not strictly true, except when the valve has no 
packing rings. If the valve is fitted with packing rings, then 
the smaller the rings are, the more nearly the valve will be bal¬ 
anced. When small rings are used, however, it is found that 
the bridges in the steam ports wear faster than the solid surface 
of the cylinder, and consequently the rings catch on the edges 
of the ports and cause trouble. To overcome this defect, rings 
wide enough to span the port are sometimes used. These rings 
are of such width as to produce minimum wear on the bridges 
across the ports, and besides, they cannot drop into the port 
when the bridges do wear, but they are so wide that they cause 
the valve to be unbalanced to a considerable extent. 

At cut-off, when the ring just covers the port, the outside 
face of the ring is subjected to the pressure in the cylinder, 
which may be nearly, if not quite, steam-chest pressure. This 
pressure on the outer face of the ring tends to force the ring 
to collapse or close up, and thus move away from the port, and 
if the pressure were not balanced, the ring would collapse 
and great leakage would occur between the steam chest and 
cylinder. This pressure on the ring is balanced by permit¬ 
ting steam-chest pressure to get behind the ring, that is, to the 
space between the ring and the bottom of its groove, as in 
the ordinary ring piston-packing. The pressure behind the 
ring therefore remains practically constant, but the pressure on 
the front face of the ring does not, since the face is practically 
relieved of pressure as soon as the ring moves past the port. 
The result is, that while the ring may be nearly balanced when 
over the port, it is decidedly unbalanced as soon as it moves 




74 STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 


8 


beyond the port, when pressure behind forces it against the 
bushing, thereby greatly increasing the force necessary to move 
the valve. 

06. Improved Packing Ring. —Except for their unbal¬ 
ancing effect, wide packing rings are very desirable for piston 
valves. In Fig. 58 there is shown an improved form of piston 
valve with wide packing rings, in which the unbalancing effect 


V 

i 



(&) 

Fig. 58. 


of the rings is overcome. View (a) is a section taken length¬ 
wise through the middle of the valve, while (6) is an end view 
with the end of the follower / cut away on the line x y to show 
the packing ring r. The packing ring is shown in section at r 
in view (a), and entire in view (6), with the exception of that 
portion cut away by the section x y, and part of the lug a broken 
away. This form of ring is made practically solid, but at the 
same time adjustable, so that it has all the advantages of the 





























§8 STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 


75 


solid ring, while at the same time it can be adjusted to provide 
for wear. It is prevented from turning by the lugs l cast on 
the follower /. 

The packing ring is cast solid, with a lug a on its inside face. 
It is first turned up to a slightly larger diameter than its 
bush, and a cut then made through the lug a radial to the 
circumference, a shim of the required thickness being inserted 
in the cut. The ring is then clamped together by means of the 
bolt and nut n, and turned up to the proper diameter to fit the 
valve bush. The shim is used to provide a means of adjusting 
the ring to the bush, and the insertion of a thicker shim pro¬ 
vides a means of compensating for wear. With this construc¬ 
tion, the unbalancing effect of wide rings is done away with, 
since the steam pressure back of the ring can have no effect 
in increasing the diameter of the ring, and thus cannot set it out 
against the bushing and increase the friction. In other words, 
this valve is, in effect, simply an adjustable plug piston valve, 
and may therefore be as perfectly balanced as the plug valve. 


SETTING SLIDE VALVES. 


PRECAUTIONS BEFORE SETTING. 

67. Locomotive engineers do not, as a rule, set the valves 
of the locomotives they run, that work being usually performed 
in the back shop or roundhouse. The progressive engineman, 
however* realizing the importance of valve setting, is 
anxious to acquire a knowledge of the subject, and rightly so, 
since the more he knows about the machine under his charge, 
the better runner will he make. If the parts of the valve gear 
are not badly worn, it is not a very difficult matter to set the 
valves of a locomotive, and the success or failure that will attend 
one’s efforts will depend, principally, on the precautions 
taken before beginning the work, and on the accuracy with 
which the measurements and alterations are made during the 
process of setting the valves. 

The valves should be set while the engine is hot, the best 
time for the work being shortly after the engine has completed 





76 STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. §8 


her run. Before beginning the work, take up any lost motion 
that may be in the parts of the valve gear, adjust the wedges, 
and see that all keys, bolts, and setscrews are tight. A valve 
setter should understand an exact method for finding the dead 
center. Also, a method for determining the “ port marks” on 
the valve stems, so that in case the valve stems have not been 
marked he can mark them, and thus avoid having to remove 
the steam-chest covers in the future when setting the valves. 


FINDING THE DEAD CENTER. 

68. Great care must be observed when placing an engine 
on the dead center to see that the exact dead point is found; 
otherwise the valves will not be set as intended. When the 
main crankpin is near the dead center, any movement of the 
driving wheels will produce but a very slight movement of 
the piston, while it will have its greatest effect on the slide 
valve, which will receive considerable motion; hence, if the 
engine, by mistake, is placed slightly off the center, the slide 
valve may be some distance from the position it would occupy 
were the engine on the exact center. 

To place a locomotive on the right forward center, proceed as 
follows: Turn the main driving wheels forwards until the main 
crankpin m is in the position shown in Fig. 59, and the 
crosshead within a short distance—say \ inch—of its extreme 
forward travel. Now scratch a mark b on the guide at the end 
of the crosshead; also, make a center-punch mark on some 
stationary part of the locomotive, as at c on the wheel cover; 
scribe the line xy on the rim of the wheel by means of a pair of 
compasses; then place one end of a tram—a stout wire pointed 
dt the ends and bent into the form shown at (6)—in the center- 
punch mark c, and scribe a short line d on the rim of the 
driver, making a punch mark where the two lines cross. Next, 
turn the drivers forwards until the crosshead has finished its 
stroke and has reached a point on its backward stroke a 
short distance beyond that in which the end of the crosshead is 
again directly in line with the scratch b. Then turn drivers 
back again until mark b is once more reached by crosshead, and 
with one end of the tram in the center punch c, scribe another 




§8 STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 


77 

































78 STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 


8 


arc e on the rim of the wheel, and make a punch mark where 
it crosses the line xy. Find a point on the line xy midway 
between the punch marks d and e, and mark with a punch 
mark f. Then place one end of the tram in the punch mark /, 
and turn the drivers backwards (in direction opposite to that of 
the arrow) until the other end of the tram just fits into the 
punch mark c on the wheel cover; the right side of the engine 
will then be on the forward center. 

The object of turning the wheels (when crosshead is moving 
backwards) until the crosshead has passed mark 6, and then 
turning them back again, is to take up the lost motion, and 
have the same brass in contact with the wristpin in each case. 

To find the back center, proceed in the same manner, bearing 
in mind to take up the lost motion in the way just described. 
The same tram is used for both forward and back center, as 
is also the same punch mark c on the wheel cover. By pro¬ 
ceeding thus, the punch mark at #, diametrically opposite the 
punch mark at /, will be obtained, and when the w r heel is 
turned so that the tram will just fit into the punch marks c 
and g , the engine will be on the back center. The centers on the 
left side also may be found by a similar process. 

Great care must be observed that the lost motion in the 
main-rod brasses be taken up in the same manner as it is 
taken up when the engine is working steam. Also, after 
getting the center marks / and g on the driving wheels for 
the forward motion centers, the same center marks can be 
used for the backward motion. Instead of using the mark b 
on the guides, two punch marks r and s and a tram may be 
used, one mark being on the guide block, and the other on 
the crosshead. 


MARKING PORT MARKS. 

69. The trams used in locomotive valve setting are gen¬ 
erally standard, and the valve rod usually contains punch 
marks called port marks, which enable the valves to be 
correctly set without removing the steam-chest covers. If the 
port marks are missing, they may be found in the following 
manner, after the steam-chest covers have been removed: 





§ 8 STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 


79 


First of all, take up any lost motion between valve and yoke 
by putting thin liners in between back end of valve and the 
yoke. Then place the engine about on the quarter, and move 
the reverse lever until the front edge of the valve is so near 
the outside edge of front steam port as to just admit a thin 
piece of tin between valve and port, Fig. 60. Make a center- 
punch mark c in the face of the back cylinder head, and then, 



by meams of the tram r l\ scribe a line a on the valve rod and 
punch it where it crosses the center line xy. This punch mark 
w T ill then be the front port mark, and by means of it, and with¬ 
out removing the steam-chest cover, we can tell when the valve 
is in the position shown in Fig. 60. 

To find the back port mark, take the liners out of back end 
and put them between yoke and front end of the valve. Then 
keeping the engine on the quarter, move the reverse lever until 
the tin will just go in between the back outside edge of the 
valve and the outside edge of the back steam port. Then with 
the tram T in the same punch mark c, scribe the line b and 
make a punch mark where this crosses the line xy\ this punch 
mark is the back port mark. The distance between the 
marks a and b is just equal to twice the lap of the valve; 
hence, if one end of the tram is in the punch mark c, and the 
other at the point d, half way between the marks a and 6, 
the valve will be in its mid-position. 


DETERMINING THE LENGTH OF VALVE ROD. 

70. On most modern locomotives the valve rods are so 
made as to permit of no adjustment; therefore, the length of 
the rod and stem is always the same. In a great many 






























80 


STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. §8 


engines, however, the valve rod is made adjustable, and hence 
the total length of the valve rod and stem is liable to be varied. 
To determine whether the valve rod and stem are of the proper 
length, place the top rocker-arm vertical, that is, at right angles 
to the valve rod. Then, by means of the tram, Fig. 60, try the 
position of the center-punch mark d. If the valve is in its 
mid-position, the rod and stem are the right length. If the 
point of the tram falls in front of the mark d , the valve rod 
is too short; while if it falls behind it, the rod is too long. 


TRYING THE LEAD. 

71. Explanations. —In trying the lead of a valve, the 
following may be the objects in view: To determine how much 
lead, if any, the valves have, and to determine whether they 
have the same amount of lead on both their forward and 
backward strokes, and also in both forward and backward gears. 

Lead, it will be remembered (Art. 54), is the amount the 
valve is open for the admission of steam at the beginning of 
the stroke of the piston; therefore, to measure the lead for 
the forward motion, the reverse lever must be in forward 
gear with the main pin on the forward or backward center, 
depending on whether the lead at the front end or back end 
is desired. To measure the lead for the backward motion, the 
lever must be placed back of the center of the quadrant. The 
position in which the lever is to be placed on the quadrant will 
depend on the part of the stroke for which it is desired to 
measure or compare the leads. If it is desired to measure the 
lead for the corner notch, the lever must be placed in the corner; 
if we wish to measure the lead for the 6-inch notch, the lever 
must be placed in that notch; and so on for other notches. 

72. Measuring the Dead. —To measure the lead in 
forward motion for the front end of the cylinder, place the 
reverse lever in the forward corner, and turn the driving wheels 
forwards until the main pin is on the forward dead center, as 
determined in Art. 08. Then by means of the tram T, Fig. 60, 
scribe a line on the valve rod. If this line falls in front of the 
port-mark line a (i. e., between a and y in the figure), the valve 





§ 8 STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 81 

is open an amount equal to the distance between the two lines, 
and the valve has that amount of lead. If the distance between 
the lines is inch, then the valve has -g^-inch lead, and so on. 
If the line falls behind a, the valve, instead of having lead, is 
closed an amount equal to the distance between the lines, or, in 
other words, the valve is blind by that amount. 

To measure the lead in the forward motion for the back end 
of the cylinder, leave the reverse lever in the forward corner, 
but turn the driving wheels forwards until the main pin is on 
the back dead center. Then with the tram scribe a line on the 
valve rod. If this line falls behind the port mark 6, the valve 
has an amount of lead equal to the distance between the lines, 
but if it falls in front of b, the valve is blind at that end by an 
amount equal to the distance between the lines. The lead for 
the backward motion is determined in exactly the same manner 
as for the forward motion, only it is to be remembered that the 
drivers must be turned forwards in determining the lead in for¬ 
ward motion, and turned backwards when the lead in backward 
motion is required. 

In order to avoid confusing the forward- and backward- 
motion lead marks on the valve rod, those for the forward 
motion had better be scratched from the line xy upwards 
(Fig. 60), and those for the backward motion from the line xy 
downwards. By following this method there will be no chance 
of mistaking the lead marks. 


DETERMINING WHETHER ECCENTRIC RODS ARE OF 
PROPER LENGTH. 

73. 33y Port Marks and Lead Marks.— Having both 

the port marks and the lead marks on the valve rod, it js a 
simple matter to determine whether the eccentric rods are of 
proper length, and, if not, how much they must be altered. 
If the valve has the same amount of lead at both ends in, say, 
the forward motion, then the go-ahead eccentric rod is the right 
length. If the leads are unequal, a change must be made in the 
length of this eccentric rod. To determine how much the rod 
needs altering, proceed as follows: Find the center point between 
the lead marks on the line x y , Fig. 60; if this point falls in front 






82 STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. §8 

of the center point d of the port marks, the go-ahead eccentric 
rod is too long, and will have to be shortened an amount equal to 
the distance between the two center points. If the center point 
between the lead marks falls behind the center point d, the 
go-ahead eccentric rod must be lengthened by the amount this 
center falls behind d, the rocker-arms being assumed of equal 
length. 

Next consider the lead marks for the backward motion: If the 
center point between the lead marks falls forward of the center 
of port marks d, the back-up eccentric rod is too long, and must 
be shortened an amount equal to the distance between these 
center points; if it falls behind point d, this eccentric rod must 
be lengthened. 

From the foregoing it will be seen that if the lead in any 
motion is unequal, it can be equalized by altering the length of 
the corresponding eccentric rod. If the lead is equal, it can be 
increased or decreased by shifting the eccentrics around in the 
proper direction on the driving axle. 

74. By Observation. —To determine whether the go- 
ahead eccentric rod is the right length, place the reverse lever in 
the forward corner, open the cylinder cocks, and then open 
the throttle far enough to move the engine slowly forwards. 
Watch the cylinder cocks, and if steam shows at the front and 
back cocks at about the same point of the strokes, the go-ahead 
eccentric rod is the right length. If it discharges too soon 
from the front cock, and too late from the back cock, the 
go-ahead rod is too long; while if it discharges too late from the 
front cock, and too soon from the back one, the rod is too short. 

To try the back-up eccentric rod, place the reverse lever in 
full gear backward, open the cylinder cocks, and then open the 
throttle slightly. If steam shows too soon at the front, and too 
late at the back cock, the back-up eccentric rod is too long; 
while if it shows too late at the front, and too early at the back 
cock, the back-up eccentric rod is too short. 

Before applying the above test, close the lubricator steam 
valve (leading from boiler) or otherwise considerable steam will 
come out of the cocks and so interfere with the test. 




§8 STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 


83 


DETERMINING TITE POINT OF CUT-OFF. 

75. It is very important that steam be admitted to the two 
cylinders during equal parts of the stroke, both during the for¬ 
ward and backward stroke; hence, it is desirable to understand 
a method of “trying” the cut-off. Usually the point of cut-off 
is determined for full gear, for half gear, and for the 6- or 8-inch 
notches, but since the method of determining the point of 
cut-off is the same for all positions of the reverse lever, it will 
be determined for one position only—say for the G-inch notch. 

The first thing to be done is to find the extreme travel of the 
crosshead on both the forward and backward strokes. To do 
this, hold a straight piece of wood or iron firmly against the 
end of the crosshead and the side of the guides in such a 
manner that as the crosshead moves towards the end of its 
stroke, it w r ill push the piece of wood or iron before it. Move 
the crosshead slowly ahead until it has completed its stroke and 
has moved far enough on its backward stroke to admit of a 
scratch a, Fig. 59, . being made on the guide bar along the face 
of the piece of wood, which, of course, will remain at the 
extreme travel of the crosshead. This scratch marks the 
extreme distance that the crosshead travels, and is called 
the travel mark. The travel mark n for the opposite stroke 
of the crosshead should be found in the same manner, and 
marked by another scratch on the guide bar. The object of 
getting these travel marks is to enable the travel of the piston 
to be measured, since the travel of the crosshead is exactly the 
same in length and direction as the travel of the piston. 

To measure the cut-off for the front end of the cylinder 
(forward motion), place the reverse lever in the notch for which 
the cut-off is to be measured (the forward 6-inch notch in this 
case), and turn the drivers forwards until the main pin has 
crossed the forward center and the crosshead has begun its 
stroke towards the back end of the engine. Then turn the 
driver slowly and watch the motion of the valve b}^ means of 
the port marks on the valve stem (see Fig. 60). The valve will 
move backwards for a time, but will soon change its direction 
of motion and move forwards. The tram should then be placed 




84 


STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 


8 


in the punch mark c in the cylinder head, and the drivers moved 
forwards until the tram mark a, Fig. 60, coincides with the 
point of the tram T , when the valve will be at cut-off (see cut-off, 
Art. 43). Now, measure the distance between the front end of 
the crosshead and the front travel mark on the guide, to see how 
far the piston has traveled on its stroke, and mark it down so as 
not to forget it. If the travel is 6 inches, the cut-off is all right; 
if it is more than 6 inches, the cut-off occurs too late; while if 
less than this amount, the cut-off is too early. Next, leave the 
reverse lever in the forward gear and turn the driver forwards 
again until the main pin crosses the back dead center, and 
obtain the cut-off for the back end of the cylinder, as explained 
above, the travel being measured from the back-travel mark n. 
By comparing this cut-off with that for the front end of the 
cylinder, it will be readily seen whether they are equal or not. 
The cut-off for the other cylinder may be found by the same 
method. The method for trying the cut-off for backward gear 
is the same as for forward gear, with the exception that the 
reverse lever must be placed in the back-gear 6-inch notch, and 
the drivers must be turned backwards instead of forwards. 


ADJUSTING THE CUT-OFFS. 

76. The cut-offs in one cylinder may occur later than in the 
other, or they may be unequal in the same cylinder. If they occur 
later in one cylinder than in the other, the defect may be rem¬ 
edied by raising the link on the side that has the longer cut-off 
and lowering the other link until the proper mean is struck; 
this may be accomplished by shortening one link hanger and 
lengthening the other. Generally the equalization may be 
effected by altering the length of only one of the hangers. 

If the cut-off for one end of the cylinder is longer than for the 
other end, it may be due to a rocker-arm being sprung, in which 
case straightening the rocker-arm will restore the equality of the 
cut-off. Frequently an inequality of the cut-off for the forward 
motion is corrected by throwing the backward motion out— 
lengthening or shortening the valve rod, and thus sacrificing the 
equality of the lead. Considerable experience in valve setting 
is necessary to effect an equalization by any of the methods. 




Locomotive Management. 


INSPECTION, CARE, AND MANAGEMENT. 


INSPECTION OF LOCOMOTIVES. 

1. The degree of success attained by an engineer will 
depend not only on his ability to handle an engine in such 
manner as to obtain the greatest amount of work from it with 
the least possible expense for fuel, lubricants, and running 
repairs, but also on the care he exercises in seeing that the 
locomotive is kept in good running order, thereby preventing 
delays in the service, and possible accidents in which life and 
property may be destroyed. Frequent and thorough inspection 
of all parts of the locomotive is, therefore, essential to his 
success, since it is by this means that loose and broken bolts 
and other defects can be discovered and repaired before the 
next trip, and thus avoid trouble that otherwise would occur on 
the road. Some railroads employ locomotive inspectors, whose 
duty is to thoroughly inspect each locomotive as it comes in, 
and report needed repairs. On most roads, however, it is the 
duty of the engineer to locate and report defects, and he should 
see that the work reported has been properly performed. 
However, whether an inspector is employed by the railroad or 
not, an engineer must regularly make a careful examination of 
his engine, since by so doing it not only lessens the chances 
of failures while on the road, but it gives him a greater feeling 
of confidence in his engine. 

2. In making an inspection, it must be ascertained 
whether there are any loose joints, bolts, or nuts; whether any 
of the parts are defective through wear or otherwise, and ought 

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2 


LOCOMOTIVE MANAGEMENT. 


§9 


to be renewed; whether any of the parts are missing; and 
whether the bearings are in such condition as will insure their 
running cool during the next trip. By feeling the bearings 
immediately after the run, and before they have had time to 
cool, their temperature can be determined. 

The engine and tender should be inspected as soon after 
each trip as possible, in order that sufficient time may be had 
for repairs before the engine must go on another trip. After 
inspection, any needed repairs should be correctly reported, 
and engineers must make it their duty to inspect the reported 
work before leaving on their next trip, so as to be satisfied that 
the work has been properly done. 

To inspect the engine, begin at the back driver where you 
come down from the cab, and make a careful examination of 
the wheels, for broken or cracked flanges, cracked spokes, 
cracked wheel centers, or for wheels working loose on axles. 
On all paper wheels, the bolts that run through the tire and 
the center plates of the wheels should be carefully examined, 
as they work loose quite frequently and thus allow the tire 
to become loose. The springs, spring hangers, and equalizer 
cradle hangers and pins should be examined, also, as they some¬ 
times break and allow the center casting to drop down upon 
the cradle frame. This makes the engine truck rigid, and 
causes it to curve hard. The driving springs and hangers 
should be carefully looked over, and then the pedestal braces, 
wedges, and cellar bolts. It should be observed whether the 
eccentric-strap oil cups, the rod cups, guide cups, and the piston- 
rod and valve-stem oilers are in good working order. If these 
are neglected and allowed to become clogged up, trouble will 
surely follow; for in that event the oil cannot get out of the cups. 

It is consistent with good judgment to occasionally take 
down the tank hose, and to thoroughly clean it and the screens. 
The brake equipment should also be inspected to see whether 
it is in good working order and that there are no leaks in the 
reservoirs or piping. The pulling bar and pins between t/he 
tender and the engine should also be carefully inspected to see 
whether they are in good order and that there are no cracks 
or breaks that might, perhaps, lead to a failure while on the 





§9 


LOCOMOTIVE MANAGEMENT. 


3 


road. The tender wheels, springs, spring hangers, and brake 
rigging should next be carefully examined to ascertain if they 
are in good order. The firebox should next be carefully 
examined, also the crown sheet, to see that there are no leaky 
crown-bar bolts, flues, or side sheets. The injectors, also, 
should be tried to ascertain whether both are in good working 
order. If defects are discovered during the inspection, a correct 
report must be made stating the nature of the work to be done 
and just where to find the trouble. This report should be 
made so clear that the shopmen cannot possibly make a mistake 
in the work to be performed. 

Besides the regular inspections referred to above, an engineer 
should make as careful an inspection as possible of all the parts 
of the engine in sight every time he “oils around.” This 
practice, if persisted in, will soon become a habit, and, after a 
time, it becomes second nature for his eye to unconsciously 
look over the parts of the engine, seeking defects. 

3. Reporting Work. —Next in importance to a careful 
inspection of the locomotive is the proper reporting of work that 
is found necessary to be done, and care should be taken to see 
that the reports are perfectly plain in every respect so that the 
repair men will be able to locate the defects readily and make 
the repairs in the least time possible. In many instances, reports 
are so made that more time is consumed in finding the defect 
than in making the repairs. For example, instead of reporting 
“engine blows,” care should be taken to locate the blow and 
report its exact location. Instead of reporting “ engine pounds 
on left side,” a better practice is to locate the pound, when 
an opportunity occurs, and specify the exact location. Instead 
of reporting ‘ ‘ air pump will not work, ’ ’ ascertain the cause and 
report the proper defect; for instance, write, “Nuts off air 
piston of air pump , 91 if that is the defect. The following are 
several examples of the way to report defects: Examine right 
injector, tubes incrusted; choke plug in lubricator, right side, 
worn too large, new one required; left cylinder packing blowing 
badly; face right valve seat; tubes leaking, calk and roll if 
necessary; line down wedges of right main driving box; etc. 




4 


LOCOMOTIVE MANAGEMENT. 


§9 


CARE OF LOCOMOTIVES. 


FRICTION. 

4. The bearings of every kind of machine, however driven, 
require lubricating, otherwise a considerable loss of power will 
result through frictional resistance between the journals and 
their bearings. This power that is lost through frictional 
resistance is converted into heat; hence, in fast-running 
machinery, sufficient heat may be generated to overheat the 
journals and their bearings, thus causing a hot box. Lubrication 
not only reduces the frictional resistance between the journal 
and its bearing, but it also helps to dissipate the heat that is 
generated, thus making it possible to run heavy machinery at 
high speeds for long periods of time. It will therefore be seen 
that lubrication is an important study, and to be a thorough 
master of the subject, one must understand friction and the 
nature and properties of the lubricants used. 

5. Effect of Friction. —If the hand is placed on a board 
and moved along its surface, it will be observed, first , that a 
resistance is offered to the movement of the hand; and, second , 
that if the movement is continued, the hand becomes heated. 
The term friction is given to this resisting force that acts 
between a body and the surface on which it moves or tends to 
move. Friction always acts in opposition to the force that 
moves or tends to move a body; in other words, if a body is in 
motion, the friction between it and the surface over which it 
moves tends to retard the movement of the body, while if the 
body is at rest and a force is applied tending to move it, 
the force of friction acts to prevent the movement. In either 
case, if the force applied is sufficient to overcome the force 
of friction, the body will be kept moving and energy will be 
expended in doing work in overcoming the frictional resistance. 
The energy thus expended or used up is converted into heat. 
The muscular energy expended in briskly rubbing two dry 
pieces of wood together may be sufficient to cause them to 
ignite and burn. Grasp a vertical rope with your hands and 
slide quickly down it and you will be made painfully aware of 






§9 


LOCOMOTIVE MANAGEMENT. 


5 


the energy that is converted into heat in overcoming the fric¬ 
tional resistance acting between your hands and the rope. 
Place your hand on a car wheel or engine wheel to which a 
brake has been applied during the descent of a long hill, and 
note the heating effect of the energy that was converted into 
heat in overcoming the resistance between the brake shoe and 
the wheel. 

6. Kinds of Friction.— The friction exerted between 
solids may be divided into rolling friction and sliding 
friction; that exerted between fluids is called fluid 
friction. Rolling friction is the resistance that a rolling 
body meets from the surface on which it rolls, as for instance, 
the resistance offered a car wheel rolling on a rail. Sliding 
friction is the resistance that a sliding body meets from the 
body on which it slides, as for instance, the resistance offered 
the crosshead sliding on the guides, the journals sliding in their 
bearings, the valves sliding on their seats, etc. 

7. Cause of Friction.— Friction between two bodies is 
due to the roughness and unevenness of their surfaces, hence, 
the smoother the surface, the less the friction will be. However, 
two bodies may have polished 
surfaces, and, to the naked eye, 
may appear perfectly smooth, 
yet, when placed under a 
powerful magnifying glass, 
they will be seen to have 
minute elevations and depres¬ 
sions that fit into one another somewhat as shown in Fig. 1. 
When one of these bodies is made slide over the other, these 
elevations are either ground off or flattened down. In either 
event, a resistance to the movement is offered, the amount of 
which will depend on the roughness of the surfaces. 

In the case of rolling friction, the elevations fit into the 
depressions as shown in Fig. 2, and when one body is rolled 
along the other, the action is somewhat similar to that of a 
toothed pinion rolling on a rack. The tearing and flattening 
effect, therefore, is very much less than in the case of sliding 



Fig. l. 




6 


LOCOMOTIVE MANAGEMENT. 


§9 


friction; hence, rolling friction is considerably less than sliding 
friction. 

The amount of friction between two bodies depends on 
the nature of the bodies, and on the pressure holding them 
together, the resistance varying directly with the pressure. 

Friction is independent of the 
velocity of the motion as well as 
of the area of the surface in 
contact. It may be lessened con¬ 
siderably by polishing and lubri¬ 
cating the surfaces that move 
upon each other, and, also, it 
has been found in many cases 
that by using bodies of different 
materials the resistance will be reduced. For this reason, the 
journal bearings of cars and locomotives are made of brass 
and anti-friction metals, while the journals are of steel and iron. 

8. Starting Friction.— Friction is greater when a body 
is just on the point of moving than when the body is in 
motion. You will be readily convinced of this if you note the 
struggles of a team of horses in starting a heavy load, and 
the comparative ease with which they haul the load when it 
has been fairly started. If this is not convincing, load a 
wheelbarrow and try the thing for yourself, or start to draw 
a heavily loaded sleigh. If a spring scale is fastened to the 
sleigh so as to register the amount you pull, it will clearly 
show that the amount of frictional resistance to starting— 
starting friction —is greater than the amount offered to the 
sleigh’s movement when it is once in motion. 

By backing the engine until the slack in the train is taken 
up, and then starting forwards, a locomotive will very fre¬ 
quently handle a train that it is unable to start with the train 
stretched. The train is thus started one car at a time and 
is kept in motion with comparative ease. In this case, the start¬ 
ing friction of each car is overcome separately, the momentum 
of the moving part of the train helping very materially to 
start the remainder. 



Fig. 2. 



LOCOMOTIVE MANAGEMENT. 


7 


§9 

Wherever there is relative movement between bodies in 
contact, there is friction; and when the number of moving 
bodies or parts are numerous, as in a locomotive and train, 
the subject of how to reduce the friction becomes of vital 
importance, since the friction absorbs and wastes a large 
amount of the available motive power, converting it into 
undesirable heat. It thus will be seen that friction in bear¬ 
ings, surfaces, etc. is very undesirable, and at first glance one 
is very apt to think that friction is always undesirable. A little 
reflection, however, will soon show that this is not the case. 
It is true that friction is always a resisting force and that it 
never produces or accelerates motion, but without friction the 
driving wheels of a locomotive would not adhere to the rails, 
consequently it would be impossible to move even the engine; 
the brake shoes would have no retarding power over the wheels, 
and our air-brake system would be of no use; men and animals 
could not walk if there were no frictional resistance between the 
foot and the earth; it would be impossible to erect buildings, 
for lack of friction between the nails and the wood; and, without 
friction, thread, rope, cloth, etc. would not hold together. 


FLUID FRICTION. 

9. When a fluid flows in a current through a mass of fluid, 
or when it moves in contact with a solid, a resistance is 
experienced, due to the relative motion of the layers of fluid 
in contact with one another. This can best be understood by 
describing the action when a fluid flows in contact with a solid, 
which is as follows: A layer of fluid adheres to the surface of 
the solid and has no motion relative to it; the next layer 
of fluid, however, has relative motion, and the velocity of the 
succeeding layers increases as their distance from the solid 
increases. Under these conditions, there is relative motion 
between the adjacent layers, which sets up a resistance to the 
flow. The effect of this resistance on the flow of a fluid is 
clearly illustrated in the flow of water in a stream, in which it 
will always be found that the velocity is least at the shores and 
gradually increases toward the center, or, rather, toward the 
part that is deepest. That this is true can be determined 




8 


LOCOMOTIVE MANAGEMENT. 


§9 


experimentally by dropping pieces of wood in the stream at 
different distances from the shore and noting the velocity with 
which they move. Likewise, it can be shown by experiment 
that the motion of the water is least at the bottom of a stream, 
and that it increases as the distance from the bottom increases. 
The resisting force between layers of a fluid acts in such a 
direction as to tend to decrease the motion of the layer of water 
that is flowing the faster, and to increase the motion of the 
slower layer. It is due to fluid friction that a floating object 
moves with the stream. Fluid friction , therefore , is the resistance 
that a layer of fluid meets from adjacent layers that are in 
contact and moving relatively with it. The particles of fluid 
adhere slightly to one another, so that when a layer of fluid 
moves, it tends to drag the adjacent layers with it, as already 
mentioned, while they tend to hold it back. The property 
that the particles of fluid possess of adhering together is called 
viscosity, and fluids that possess this property to a high 
degree, as molasses, heavy oils, etc., are said to be viscous. 

It has been found (1) that fluid friction is independent of the 
pressure between the masses in contact, that is, the friction of 
fluids is unaffected by variations of pressure; (2) that the 
friction of fluids depends directly on the area of the surfaces in 
contact, being directly proportional to it; (3) that fluid friction 
depends on the relative velocity between layers, being propor¬ 
tional to the square of the velocity at high speeds, but only to 
about the velocity at slow speeds; (4) that fluid friction does 
not depend on the nature of the solid against which it may flow, 
but on the degree of roughness of the surface of the body; (5) 
that the friction of fluids depends on the density of the fluid, 
and increases with the density. Fluid friction is less than 
either rolling friction or sliding friction. 


LUBRICATION. 

10. The object of using lubricating oils on journals, etc. is 
to reduce the amount of friction to a minimum by substituting 
the friction of fluids for the sliding friction of solids. A per¬ 
fectly lubricated bearing, therefore, should follow the laws of 
fluid friction, but, unfortunately, it is not possible in practice to 





§9 


LOCOMOTIVE MANAGEMENT. 


9 


obtain perfect lubrication. In the case of a freely lubricated 
journal subjected to light pressure at high velocities, the con¬ 
ditions will closely approximate that of a perfectly lubricated 
journal, and the journal will float as it were on the two films of 
fluid that adhere to the surfaces of the journal and its bearing 
and are continually interposed between them. In this case, the 
friction in the bearing occurs simply between the two layers of 
fluid that adhere to the two surfaces. However, at slow speeds 
and with the journal subjected to very heavy pressure, the 
journal and its bearing are forced into close contact, and the 
friction in that case is partly solid and partly fluid friction. 
In this case it will be greater than in the first, as will be shown 
by the wear of the surfaces. In most cases it will probably be 
found that the journal and its bearing are not completely 
separated by the film of lubricant interposed between them, but 
that they partly rub on each other and are partly separated by 
the layer of lubricant; hence, the friction in this case will follow 
neither the laws of solid nor fluid friction, but will approximate 
one or the other, depending on the condition of the journal. 
With scant lubrication, the friction will approximate that of 
sliding friction, while with sufficient lubrication, the friction will 
approximate that of fluid friction. 


LUBRICANTS. 

11. Lubricants are divided into solids, as graphite; 
semisolid, as animal fats, vegetable greases, and preparations 
from mineral oils; and liquids, which include a variety of 
animal, vegetable, and mineral oils. It is the liquid mineral 
oils that we shall consider. 

The mineral oils are derived from coal by distillation, while 
the petroleums (mineral oils, also, but slightly different 
chemically) are found in subterranean chambers in the vicinity 
of coal deposits. Both the mineral oils and the petroleums are 
hydrocarbons and belong to the class of oils known as volatile 
oils. They have no affinity for oxygen or moisture, and will 
not ferment or decompose in any temperature. As petroleum 
oils have entirely superseded the mineral oils derived from 
distillation from coal, only the former will be treated. 



10 


LOCOMOTIVE MANAGEMENT. 


§9 


12. Petroleum Oils. —Petroleum is used in great quan¬ 
tities for lighting, heating, and lubricating purposes. As 
taken from the earth, it is composed of a mixture of hydro¬ 
carbon compounds ranging from a light, incondensible gas to 
solids. When subjected to heat, the component parts of the 
petroleum separate, and, if each part that is separated is again 
heated, it will be divided into another series of hydrocarbon 
compounds. It is due to this property of crude petroleum that 
so many different products are obtained from it. 

In preparing crude petroleum for the market, it is either 
purified, condensed, or distilled. In most cases, however, 
the last method is the one used. 

Benzine is the first product obtained from the distillation of 
crude petroleum. As the process of distillation is continued, 
and the temperature is gradually increased, several grades of 
oil, known as burning oils, are obtained. These oils are collected 
separately and treated chemically to bleach and free them from 
impurities and they then form illuminating oils. By the 
time these oils are removed only about 20 per cent, of this 
crude petroleum remains, and it is from this that the lubricating 
oils are obtained. Black lubricating oils, such as are used on 
car journals, are obtained by subjecting this remaining 20 per 
cent, to distillation, with a gradually increasing temperature 
until a temperature of 380° F. is obtained. By this means all 
the lighter grades of oil that will flash at a temperature lower 
than 380° F. are driven or distilled over. The process of dis¬ 
tillation is not continued above the temperature of the fire 
test that the oil must stand. 

The brighter colored engine oils are obtained by filtering the 
oil through charcoal after distillation. If heavier oils of still 
higher fire test are desired, the distillation is continued up to a 
temperature corresponding to the desired fire test. To obtain 
the heavy cylinder oils having a fire test of about 680° F., the 
distillation is continued to that temperature. 

13. Flashing Point. —The temperature at which an oil 
will give off vapors in sufficient quantities to allow of their 
ignition is called the flashing point of that oil. It has 




§9 


LOCOMOTIVE MANAGEMENT. 


11 


been found, by experiment, that 3 parts of petroleum vapor 
mixed with 1 part of air will ignite with a slight report 
when a match is touched to it, while 9 parts of vapor with 1 
part of air will cause a violent explosion. At temperatures 
lower than its flashing point, an oil will not give off sufficient 
vapor to cause an explosion; if heated to its flashing point, 
however, it will give off just sufficient vapor to cause a flash if 
a light is applied, although the oil itself will not ignite. If the 
temperature is increased above the flashing point an explosive 
mixture will be formed that may prove to be dangerous. 

The lowest temperature at which an oil will take fire and 
burn is called its burning point. The burning point of an 
oil may be from 10° F. to 75° F. higher than the flashing point; 
for petroleum oils it is generally from 40° F. to 50° F. higher. 
The amount of vapor given off by an oil increases rapidly as the 
temperature is raised above the flashing point of the oil, and 
if the temperature of the oil is at the burning point, the oil will 
ignite and burn also. It is of great importance to remember 
that an oil should never be used in places where it will be 
subject to temperatures higher than its flashing point. It 
should be remembered, also, that the nearer the temperature 
of an oil approaches its flashing point, the less is the lubricative 
power of the oil. An oil may be a very good oil under normal 
conditions, and yet, should the part it is lubricating become 
hot, it may be totally useless. More than that, it may even be 
detrimental, since it may take fire and burn, in which case the 
bearing is further heated, and, besides, a residue will be left 
that will cause additional trouble. 

It is well to remember, also, that while a cylinder oil will 
not be injured by being subjected to a moist heat, as when 
introduced into the steam chest, yet it deteriorates rapidly 
when subjected to a dry heat, especially at high temperatures. 


OILING. 

14. Quantity of Oil Required by Various Parts. 
The amount of oil required by the various parts of an engine 
will depend on the size and type of the engine, the work 
performed, the time occupied in doing that work, the conditions 




12 


LOCOMOTIVE MANAGEMENT. 


9 


under which the engine is worked, and the quality of the oil used. 
All the bearings and wearing surfaces should be oiled with 
just sufficient oil to thoroughly lubricate them. Heavy consoli¬ 
dation engines weighing over 100 tons require far more oil than 
do the light eight-wheeled engines that only weigh 30 or 
40 tons, for they have more bearings to oil and more strain 
comes on each bearing; yet the attempt is often made to make 
the same mileage to a pint of oil with large engines as with 
small ones. 

A heavy freight engine with small drivers, which is 18 to 
24 hours in getting over a division, should be allowed more oil 
than a large-wheeled engine with a light train, which, perhaps, 
is only 7 or 8 hours going the same distance. The same 
rule may be applied to the use of valve oil. A large, heavy 
engine with a slow train may only make a low mileage to the 
pint of valve oil, while a light engine on a light train, and 
running at a good rate of speed, w r ould have no trouble in 
doubling the distance to the pint. 

Engine oil may be used to advantage in the main-rod and 
side-rod cups, on light engines, and, in some cases, on heavy 
engines; but, as a general rule, the main-rod brasses on 
heavy engines require something more substantial. Graphite 
can be mixed with the oil with good results, but, as a general 
thing, valve oil or grease will give the best results. 

In oiling an engine, care should be taken not to overflow 
the cups, boxes, etc. In oiling tender journals, if the oil is 
poured in toward the middle of the box and along the side of 
the journal, better results will be obtained than if it is poured 
into the end of the box, provided the dust guards are in and 
in good condition. By keeping the cellars and oil boxes of a 
locomotive well packed, it can be run with less liability of hot 
boxes and cut journals, and more economy will be shown in the 
amount of engine oil used. 


PACKING BOXES. 

15. Materials Used in Packing.— The material used 
for packing boxes should consist of either cotton or woolen 
waste that has been thoroughly saturated with lubricating oil, 




§9 


LOCOMOTIVE MANAGEMENT. 


13 


long-fiber waste being much preferable to the short-fiber. 
Waste that has been soaked in oil for several days will give 
much better service than waste that has been soaked for a 
short time only, for the reason that the former is thoroughly 
saturated with oil while the latter is not. In fact, waste should 
be mixed with and kept under oil for at least 3 days before 
using, after which it should be placed on a wire netting to allow 
the excess oil to drain off. Waste should not be swimming in 
oil when used; it should be in such a condition that the oil 
will just ooze out when it is subjected to light pressure. When 
carried on an engine ready for use, packing, or dope, as it is 
called, should be kept in a covered bucket made for the 
purpose, in order that cinders and grit will be kept out. Among 
the other tools, all engines should have a set of packing irons, 
which consists of a hook for pulling the packing out of the 
boxes, and a tool to be used in pushing the packing into the 
boxes and around the journals. 

In order to allow the brass to be taken over the collar on 
the end of the journal without having to raise it too high, 
an iron wedge or key is placed between the top of the brass 
and the top portion of the oil box. This wedge fits behind 
a lug in the top of the oil box, which prevents it working out. 
If this wedge breaks or gets out of place, the strain on the 
brass will be unevenly distributed and will cause it to run hot 
at once. To remove a wedge, raise the box high enough so 
that the wedge will slip out under the lug; this gives room 
enough to lift the brass over the collar. After replacing a 
brass, the wedge must be replaced and the box let down before 
packing. One or two spare wedges and tender brasses should 
always be carried in the tender tool boxes. 

In packing the boxes for the first time, the space below the 
journal should be filled with packing, but care should be taken 
not to squeeze it in hard, for there is such a thing as packing a 
box too tightly. When too much packing is forced into a box, 
it is wedged against the bearing, a large quantity of the oil is 
squeezed out of it, and, as a result, the bearing may run warm. 
In packing driving-box cellars, it is important to put in just, 
sufficient packing to insure its keeping up against the journal. 



14 


LOCOMOTIVE MANAGEMENT. 


§9 


If the packing used contains too much oil, it will remain up 
around the journal when first put in, hut as soon as some of the 
oil works out, the packing will settle in the cellar, and will not 
fill the space around the journal, the result being about the 
same as though the box were not packed at all. A great many 
cellars have a movable plate bolted to them that can be dropped 
down the length of the slotted holes in the plate by simply 
slacking off the nuts, thus making the cellars easy to pack. 
After the cellar is packed, the plate must be fastened up again, 
to keep the packing from working out. Without this plate, 
the cellar should come down and the packing be put in so that 
it will not roll up behind the journal and wedge up hard, 
causing unnecessary friction. 

16. Packing Hot Boxes on the Road.— When packing 
hot boxes on the road, the old packing had better be removed 
and the box repacked with new dope. After packing a box, 
always see that no pieces of the packing hang out of the 
box, for they will cause a waste of oil; capillarity will cause 
the oil to follow the waste just as it causes the oil to follow the 
wick of a lamp; hence, oil will slowly run out of the box and 
be wasted. Some engine-truck cellars slide in and out so that 
the bolt must be taken out in order to pack the cellar; on 
other forms of truck cellars, the cellars drop down so that it 

is only necessary to take out 
b one cellar bolt to drop the 
cellar. The quickest way 
to pack the latter type of 
engine-truck cellars is to 
take out the cellar bolt at the 
end of the cellar furthest 
from the wheel and allow 
that end of the cellar to 
drop down; then there will 
be a good chance to take 
out the old packing and 
repack the cellar. After repacking, the cellar can be raised 
into place by means of a small bar or lever, using the lower bar 





LOCOMOTIVE MANAGEMENT. 


15 


of the truck frame as a fulcrum. After replacing the cellar 
bolt, secure it so that it cannot work out. 

Sometimes it is very 
difficult to pull down a 
driving-box cellar after 
the cellar bolt has been 
removed. In such an 
event do not try to force 
it down by driving an 
iron wedge or a cold 
chisel in between the 
edge of the cellar and 
the journal, because you 
are liable to damage the 
journal. The best plan 
is to use a cellar remover 
similar to that shown in 
Fig. 3. This consists of 
a round bar of |-inch 
steel bent into the form 
shown in the figure. One 
end a of the remover is placed in the cellar-bolt hole on the left 
side, and the arms of the remover are then 
sprung together sufficiently to permit the 
end b to enter the cellar-bolt hole at the 
right, as shown in Fig. 4. A block can 
then be placed between the two ends of 
the remover to prevent their slipping out, 
and a bar used to pry down, using the 
pedestal brace for a fulcrum. A very 
good adjustable cellar remover is shown 
in Fig. 5. Of course, engines are not pro¬ 
vided with cellar removers, and if a 
driving-box cellar has to be taken down 
on the road, some other means will have 
to be used. Sometimes a long ^-inch 
bolt can be bent so as to have a hook 
on one end and a handle oh the other, which can then be used 
































16 


LOCOMOTIVE MANAGEMENT. 


§9 


to pull down the cellar. When it has been taken down, pack it 
in the same way that you would an engine-truck cellar, 
although as a general thing it should be packed tighter. 


PACKING PISTON RODS AND VALVE STEMS. 

17. As the use of metallic packing for valve stems and 
piston rods has gradually grown into general favor, the use 
of the old-style fiber packing has gradually been discontinued. 
However, many engines still have the old-style fiber packing, 
and, therefore, a few words regarding its use will not be out of 
place. Hemp, rubber, soapstone, and asbestos are substances 
commonly used for this purpose, and, in most cases, give good 
results if used properly. The great secret of making fiber 
packing steam-tight lies in its not being squeezed too tightly 
in the stuffingbox. If a rod is packed too tightly, friction 
will soon cause the rod to heat and char or burn the packing, 
and the result will be leaky packing. Putting new packing in 
on top of the charred packing will not help matters much. 
On the other hand, if the packing is put in properly and the 
gland is not screwed up too tightly, the rod will not heat and 
the packing will remain steam-tight for a long time. As it 
becomes necessary, the gland can be tightened up, and after it 
has been tightened a few times, another ring or two of packing 
may be added with good results. Rubber and hemp make 
very good packing, and, as a general rule, will give the best 
service if properly used. 

18. The best way to pack piston rods is as follows: Place 
the side that requires packing on either quarter, with the 
reverse lever in mid-gear; set the brake, or else block the 
driving wheels; then take the nuts off the gland studs, taking 
care to place each nut as it is taken off in such a position as 
to insure the nuts being put back on their proper studs; next 
pull out the gland and slip it back on the rod near the cross¬ 
head, then give the engine a little steam and move the reverse 
lever so as to uncover the steam port to the back end of the 
cylinder to blow the old packing out clean. If the neck ring 
comes out, it can be punched back into place with the packing 




LOCOMOTIVE MANAGEMENT. 


17 


§9 

iron. The material used for packing should be just large 
enough to fill the space between the rod and the sides of the 
stuffingbox, and should be put into the stuffingbox in the 
form of a ring. The packing should be well oiled before it is 
put in, and if a little flake graphite is used, in addition to the 
oil, it will have a good effect. As each ring is put in, it should 
be pushed as far into the stuffingbox as it will go, care being 
taken to break joints with each ring. When the stuffingbox is 
full, the gland may be screwed up moderately tight and the jam 
nuts tightened so that they cannot work off. 

When rubber rod packing is used, a ring of hemp or wicking 
should be placed between the last rubber ring and the gland, 
in order to keep the rod clean. Valve stems should be packed in 
a similar way. 

The life of the rod packing will be lengthened considerably 
if the rods are kept well lubricated by means of a swab. 

19. A throttle-valve stem may be packed in the same 
manner as a piston rod or valve stem. Good results can be 
obtained by cutting washers out of rubber hose. They should 
be cut so as to just slip over the stem, and should fill the space 
between the stem and the sides of the stuffingbox. The 
washers should be soaked in oil and graphite before being put 
in place. Rubber packing is objectionable where iron throttle 
stems are used, for the reason that the sulphur in the rubber 
attacks the iron and pits it. With brass-covered throttle stems, 
however, this pitting does not occur. Tea lead and asbestos in 
alternate layers makes a good packing for either brass or iron 
stems, as it wears well and will withstand the increased tem¬ 
perature of the high steam pressures. To pack a throttle-valve 
stem, the throttle lever may have to be disconnected. 

20. Packing* Cab Fixtures. —Asbestos wicking is about 
the best material to use for packing the stems of the various 
cab fixtures, such as injectors, steam valves, etc. After the 
gland nut has been taken off and the old packing removed, 
the asbestos wicking, which previously should have been 
saturated with oil and graphite, should be wound around the 
spindle and forced into place until the stuffingbox is full; 



18 


LOCOMOTIVE MANAGEMENT. 


§9 


then screw the gland nut just a little tighter than it can be 
done with the hand. If the nut goes down quite a distance, it 
is best to take it off again and put a little more packing in the 
stuffingbox. Never tighten the nut so that the spindle cannot 
be turned easily. Another good way to pack globe-valve stems 
and injector-ram stems is to first put a ring of asbestos in the 
bottom of the stuffingbox, fill the box nearly full of graphite, 
and put another ring of asbestos on top of this; the gland nut 
is then screwed down until it feels solid. This will make a 
perfectly steam-tight packing, and if it does start to blow a little 
it can be made tight again by tightening the gland a little. 

After asbestos packing has been in use for some time it 
becomes hard and will leak. When in this condition it can be 
softened and made tight by taking off the gland nut and satu¬ 
rating the packing with oil. 

CARE OF METALLIC PACKING. 

21. To obtain the best results from the use of metallic 
packing, the rods should be in good condition before the 
packing is put in, otherwise both the time and the material 
will be wasted, for, in this case, this packing cannot be kept 
from blowing. Even when the packing is in good condition 
when it is put in, it must receive proper care in order to insure 
the best results. If metallic packing is allowed to run without 
being oiled, it will soon give trouble. The best way to oil the 
packing is by means of a swab that is supplied with oil from a 
cup provided for the purpose. As the piston rod or valve 
stem moves back and forth through the oily swab, it is kept 
clean and thoroughly oiled. Some makes of metallic packing 
are equipped with a regular swab cup. A very good swab may 
be made for engines not equipped with swab cups by winding 
some wicking on a piece of wire and fastening the wire to 
the gland nuts in such a way that the swab will lay on the 
rod or valve stem. This form of swab must be oiled by hand. 

22. Worn Packing. —When metallic packing has been 
in use for some time and begins to blow a little, it indicates 
that the packing rings have worked around until they do not 



LOCOMOTIVE MANAGEMENT. 


19 


§9 

break joints, or, have worn until they are slightly larger than 
the rod; in the latter case the ends of the rings should be filed 
off a little to allow them to close around the rod again. 
The one thing, however, that will add most to the life of 
metallic packing is to keep it well oiled. Close observation 
will always show that the rod packing on an engine that receives 
a liberal amount of valve oil through the lubricator lasts much 
longer than the packing on engines on which the valve-oil 
supply is limited. Experience teaches also that valve oil on 
swabs gives much better results than engine oil. 

FAILURE OF METALLIC PACKING. 

23. In the event of a rod packing failing when the engine 
is only a short distance from the end of the run, the best thing 
to do is to proceed with the train and let the packing blow. 
If the blow is on the right side, the escaping steam may obstruct 
the engineer’s view somewhat; still if he exercises care and uses 
good judgment he can get the train in with less delay than 
would occur if he stopped to fix the packing. However, if it 
fails some distance from a terminal, something must be done 
to prevent the packing from blowing. If, fortunately, there 
are some packing rings in the tool box, take off the gland and 
replace the worn-out rings; but if no rings are at hand, some¬ 
thing else will have to be used to replace the worn-out or 
broken packing rings. If it is found that one of the packing 
rings is serviceable, leave it in the vibrating cup, and fill the 
remaining space with wdcking, asbestos, or anything of that 
nature that is at hand; then replace the gland, and the follower 
and the spring will keep the packing in place. If it is found 
that all of the rings are useless, remove them and fill the 
vibrating cup with wicking or whatever you have at hand. 
In this event, it is a good plan to use a piece of bell rope in 
place of the first ring, because it is not as liable to blow out as 
wicking or other material. If the vibrating cup is broken, it 
must be taken out and all the space between the cone ring 
and the follower filled with some kind of fiber packing. 
Should this ring be broken (which very seldom occurs), let 
it remain where it is unless all broken to pieces. In that 


20 LOCOMOTIVE MANAGEMENT. §9 

event take out the pieces, if they have not already come out, and 
let the vibrating cup butt against the inside of the gland. 
If the follower ring breaks and gets out of place, all that can be 
done is to let the spring rest against the packing rings. The 
above applies to both valve-stem and piston-rod packing. 
If Harthan’s metallic packing is used and the rings become 
entirely useless, remove the gland and take them all out, 
then pack the stuffingbox full of fiber packing, bell cord, waste, 
old overalls, or anything at hand that will serve the purpose, 
and replace the gland. 

24. If the copper gaskets between the gland and the stuff¬ 
ingbox of any style of metallic packing permit the joint to 
leak very badly, they may be replaced temporarily by a piece 
of thin rubber packing. Take a piece of thin sheet rubber 
large enough to make the joint and cut a hole in it as large as 
the stuffingbox; then cut the rubber so that it can be slipped 
on over the rod. Loosen the nuts on the gland studs, take out 
the defective c'opper gaskets, put the rubber gasket in its place, 
and tighten the nuts again. In most cases, this will make a 
good joint. _ 


CARE OF HEADLIGHTS. 

25. In some cases headlights have been in use for so many 
years and have been reduced to such a condition that it is a 
very difficult matter to obtain anything like satisfactory results 
from them; still, if they are properly cared for and skilfully 
handled, even old headlights may be made do fairly satis¬ 
factory work. With modern headlights, there is very little 
excuse for their not giving satisfaction, provided they receive 
proper care and attention. If the wick is allowed to become 
too short before being replaced, the lamp may bum all right 
during the early part of the night, while the reservoir is full of 
oil, but as the oil gets low the light will grow dim and finally 
go out. In this event, the quickest way out of the difficulty is 
to refill the oil reservoir; but a new wick should be put in at 
the first opportunity. To do this, turn the old wick up as high 
as it will go and then pull it out. Take the remains of the old 
wick from the wick holder and put a new one in its place. 




§9 


LOCOMOTIVE MANAGEMENT. 


21 


To replace a wick, secure the lower end of the wick to the wick 
holder by sewing or by winding it with thread, being careful to 
leave no knots. The lower end of the wick should come 
against the shoulder of the wick holder, which, usually, is 
about i inch from the bottom edge of the holder. If the 
wick is of canton flannel, it should be wrapped around the 
holder twice, so as to give about the proper thickness. A piece 
of writing paper rolled in with the flannel improves the wick, as 
it prevents the wick from wrinkling, in consequence of which it 
burns more evenly. The wick should be wound around a small 
round piece of wood, commonly known as the wick stick, or 
former, to prevent the wick getting wrinkled. Where the wick 
is made of a felty substance, it is a good plan to first put it 
on the wick stick and tap it lightly all over before attaching to 
the wick holder. This will have a tendency to make it thinner 
and less liable to bind or stick fast when being put into the 
tube. When putting the wick into place be sure that the 
ratchet on the lower edge of the holder goes into the proper 
place, so that the wick can be raised or lowered by means of 
the cogged wheel. After the wick has been lowered as far as 
it will go, the portion that remains above the tube can be 
trimmed off level with a sharp knife, or, if no oil has been put 
on the wick, it may be burned off with a red-hot flat piece of 
iron, the latter method being preferable. 

A headlight wick should never be turned down to put out 
the light, as it spoils the wick; always blow out the light*. 

When the headlight is used regularly every night, the wick 
should be trimmed daily. To trim a wick, take off the burner 
and remove the button, then rub off the charred part of the 
wick with the fingers. To insure a good light, the burned end 
of the wick must be kept perfectly level. 

26. Lampblack will be found a good material for cleaning 
and polishing the reflector. There are several preparations on 
the market for doing this work, but they cost considerable 
money and cannot do the work much better than common 
lampblack, which is furnished by all railway companies. To 
clean a reflector, first remove the lamp chimney and burner and 




22 


LOCOMOTIVE MANAGEMENT. 


9 


then wipe off the reflector with a piece of clean, dry cotton 
waste. Saturate a small piece of this waste with kerosene oil, 
shake some lampblack on it, and rub this over the reflector 
thoroughly until all the tarnish is removed. A reflector should 
always be rubbed straight out towards its edge; it never 
should be rubbed in a circle or around the reflector as so 
doing affects its reflecting power. Afterwards wipe off the 
lampblack and oil, and polish the reflector with clean waste and 
a little dry lampblack. 

27. In order to obtain the best results from a headlight 
it should be turned up as high as possible without smoking. 
In case the lamp does smoke, the reflector should be taken out 
and the case thoroughly cleaned out. If it is found that the 
ventilator at the top is partially stopped up with soot, it may be 
blown out by means of compressed air, or cleaned out with a 
stick wrapped around with waste. 

It was shown in Locomotive Boilers , Part 1, that the function of 
a lamp chimney is to produce an upward draft of air and deflect 
it against the flame, in order to furnish a sufficient supply of 
oxygen to consume all the carbon while it is at a white heat in 
the flame. Also, it was shown that if by any means the draft is 
reduced so that sufficient oxygen is not supplied, smoking will 
result and the light will burn dimly. It thus will be seen that 
if the air passages of a headlight are allowed to become stopped 
up, the lamp will smoke and burn poorly. In the headlight, 
a current of air passes up through the wick tube and supplies 
oxygen to the inside of the flame, being deflected against it by 
means of the button. A current of air is also deflected against 
the outside of the flame by the action of the lamp chimney. 
If these currents of air are not properly adjusted, the lamp will 
not burn properly. If the draft holes in the bottom of the case 
are opened too wide, there will be too great a draft and the 
flame will burn up too high, especially when running. If the 
draft holes are opened too little, the light will burn dimly 
and smoke for want of air. If the wick works down when the 
engine is running, pack the wick lifter gland a little tighter, so 
as to make it more solid. If the gland is not constructed so 



§9 


LOCOMOTIVE MANAGEMENT. 


23 


that it can be repacked readily, use a thicker wick. To guard 
against the wick working up, first turn it up high after lighting 
and then lower it until the flame is just right. This trouble is 
due usually to a wrinkle in the wick, which gradually straightens 
out, and lengthens the wick after it has been turned up to the 
proper height. A wick that is too loose will cause the flame to 
jump up and down when running, and the lamp is liable to 
smoke. 

When replacing a wick, empty the oil that is in the reservoir 
through the wick tube, so as to clean out any sediment that 
may be in the oil passage. 

Care should be taken to prevent water getting into the oil 
reservoir, for the reason that the water, being heavier than the 
oil, sinks to the bottom of the reservoir, and into the tube that 
leads to the wick holder; the oil will float on this water, which, 
consequently, will prevent the oil from reaching the wick, and 
the lamp will go out. In order to guard against this trouble, 
the kerosene can should always be kept covered so as to prevent 
snow or water getting into it. Signal oil should never be used 
in a headlight, for the reason that it will not burn. Kerosene 
oil only should be used, and the better the quality of the oil, the 
better the light. 

NECESSARY TOOLS FOR LOCOMOTIVES. 

28. The conditions existing on the different roads through¬ 
out the country are so varied that both the kind and the number 
of tools to be provided for emergencies must necessarily vary 
somewhat, and the proper tools to carry, including lamps, etc., 
in any case, are those called for by the rules and regulations 
of the road. However, in general practice, it will be found 
profitable to equip each road engine with the following tools 
with which to cope with breakdowns and other emergencies: 
A hard hammer, soft hammer, alligator wrench, 15-inch 
monkeywrench, setscrew wrench for eccentric setscrews, rod- 
setscrew wrench, rod-bolt wrench, crankpin nut wrench, and a 
pedestal-brace bolt wrench. Also, a cold chisel, a cape chisel, 
an axe, a 5^-foot pinch bar, and a piece of chain about 6 feet 
long, having a diamond hook at one end. A valve-stem clamp 



24 LOCOMOTIVE MANAGEMENT. §9 

of suitable design should be provided to hold the valve m 
mid-position in case the rods have to be taken down. Also, 
a set of iron blocks to fit on top of driving boxes under the 
frames, to be used in case of a broken spring or hanger. 
A 12-inch jack for raising tender journal-boxes, in case it 
becomes necessary to put in a new brass, or for raising broken 
axles, etc. Also, it will be found advantageous to supply a 
couple of wedges 4 or 5 inches square and 3 feet long, guide-bar 
blocks for blocking the crosshead, and blocks for blocking the 
links. The tools for firing should consist of a scoop, pick, 
scraper or hoe, long poker, slash bar, rake, and a bar or 
wrench for working the grate bars. These tools should have 
their proper place on the tender and should be kept there when 
not in use. In addition to the above tools, an engine should be 
supplied with two spring-valve engine oilers, one wide-mouthed 
valve-oil can, and a tallow pot in which to warm the valve oil 
before filling the lubricators; also, one kerosene-oil can, one 
signal-oil can, one engine-oil can, two torches, the requisite 
number of torpedoes, one white and one red lantern, four 
blizzard lamps, two for on front of engine and two for on rear 
of tender; also, the proper flag signals to be used in day time, 
namely, two white, four green, and one red flag. A flag box 
should be provided, in which the flags can be carried and kept 
clean when not, in use. Extra water glasses and lubricator 
glasses and rubber gaskets for the same should be carried in a 
safe place, and proper tools provided for replacing a glass in 
the event of one breaking. A couple of extra tender brasses, 
with wedges, and one engine-truck brass should be carried also. 

MANAGEMENT OF LOCOMOTIVES. 

DUTIES OF ENGINEER BEFORE ATTACHING HIS ENGINE 
TO THE TRAIN. 

29. The first thing that an engineer should do when 
arriving at an engine house, if the pooling system is in vogue, 
is to ascertain which engine he is to take out; he should then 
examine the work book to see if any work had been reported 
on that engine, and must examine the bulletin board to acquaint 





§9 


LOCOMOTIVE MANAGEMENT. 


25 


himself with any new orders that have been issued since he 
last saw it. 

When the engineer arrives at his engine he should assure 
himself that the work reported has been properly performed, 
and then he should determine the amount of water in the 
boiler and try the water glass and the water-gauge cocks to 
see if they are in proper working order. The firebox should 
be examined, also, and the condition of the crown sheet and 
tube-sheet noticed, as well as the condition of the fire. He 
should see, also, that the engine is properly supplied with coal, 
water, and sand, and that the necessary tools, flags, and signal 
lamps are on the engine. The air pump should be started 
and the proper pressure pumped up, noting whether the pump 
governor and feed-valve regulate the pressures properly. Also, 
he should oil the engine, and, while doing this, should note the 
condition of the running gear, in order to assure himself that 
everything is in good order. The oiling should be done just 
before leaving time, as better results will be obtained than if it 
is done earlier. 


STARTING TRAINS. 

30. When the train is ready and the conductor gives the 
signal to start, the engineer should answer the conductor’s 
signal with two short blasts of the whistle, if he is pulling a 
freight train, or by ringing the bell if he is pulling a passenger 
train, unless the rules of the road specify otherwise. After 
giving the required signal, the engineer should place the reverse 
lever in full gear in the direction he is to go; then, if the start 
is at the terminal station and it is permissible, he should open 
the cylinder cocks to allow the condensation to be worked out 
of the steam passages and cylinders. The throttle should then 
be opened sufficiently to start the train without slipping the 
drivers. As the speed increases, the reverse lever should be 
gradually hooked up toward the center, until it rests in the 
proper running notch, and the throttle then opened an amount 
depending on the speed and weight of the train. 

If the train is a very heavy freight, and is hard to start, 
the slack should first be taken; that is, the cars should be 




26 


LOCOMOTIVE MANAGEMENT. 


§9 


bunched together so as to compress the drawbar springs and 
leave no space between the buffers; then, when the engine is 
started forwards, the cars are started one after the other. This 
method will enable the engine to start a train that it could not 
start otherwise. After bunching the slack, care must be taken 
not to open the throttle in such a way as to start the head end 
of the train too quickly, as the train may be broken in two. 
Also, it is important that the slack of the entire train is taken 
up before starting forwards, since if the slack is taken up on 
only a part of the train and the rear end is stretched, the train 
may be snapped in two as soon as the forward movement 
reaches the stretched portion. Slipping the engine should be 
avoided, and if the train cannot be started otherwise, the rails 
may be sparingly sanded. 

31. When the engine is not equipped with a pneumatic 
sander, care should be taken not to open the sand valves wider 
than is necessary, and as little sand as possible should be used. 
Should the drivers slip while starting the train, do not use sand 
to stop their slipping, because it will tend to stop the slipping 
suddenly, and very severe strains will therefore be thrown on 
the crankpins and rods. If the engine should slip, first close 
the throttle sufficiently to stop it, then use sand, and gradually 
open the throttle. By proceeding in this manner you are not 
so apt to damage the engine or break the train in two. As the 
train is slowly set in motion, the engineer and fireman should 
ascertain, by watching, whether the whole train is coming (some 
of the couplings may be broken while starting), or whether any 
signal is given from the rear end to stop. The train should 
always be run slowly and carefully until all the switches, 
frogs, and crossings of the yard are passed, and not until then 
and after the engineer has seen that everything is in order and 
the train is on the main track, should he increase the speed. 
Then, as the speed increases, the reverse lever should be hooked 
back a notch or two at a time until the steam is cut off at the 
shortest point at which the engine will do its work properly and 
most economically. 

In starting passenger trains, it is necessary to get the train up 




§9 LOCOMOTIVE MANAGEMENT. 


to speed quickly, especially in local service when the time 
is fast and the stops close together. It must be remembered, 
however, that it is not good policy to work an engine too hard 
in getting up to speed. The best plan is to make time when 
the train is up to speed, and also in making the stops. 


CLIMBING GRADES. 

32. Under the present conditions of railroading, where 
engines are required to pull a certain number of tons, regardless 
of the number of cars in the train, it requires good judgment in 
many cases to get up heavy grades without stalling. If a 
heavy train has to be started at the bottom of a long, steep 
grade and taken over the top, it means in most cases that the 
engine will have to be worked at long cut-off, may be nearly full 
stroke, all the way up. Of course, if the engine will handle the 
train with the lever hooked up a few notches, it should be given 
a chance to do so. If the rails are slippery, sand should be 
used, but care should be taken not to use too much. If there is 
a piece of level track or a slight down grade before the hill is 
reached, the best thing to do is to take a run for it and get up 
as much speed as possible before striking the grade. In 
taking a run for a hill, hook the reverse lever well up, and 
get a good “swing” on the train before reaching the foot 
-of the grade; when the grade is reached, the reverse lever 
should be dropped down toward the corner a notch or two at a 
time, as it becomes necessary. Where this plan is adopted, it 
will usually prove successful. It is poor practice to drop the 
lever four or five notches at a time, and this practice will often 
result in stalling, where dropping the lever down gradually 
would have taken the train up and over the grade. 


ECONOMY IN THE USE OF STEAM. 

33. The subject of the economical use of steam is an 
important one, and should receive very careful consideration 
from enginemen, since an engineer’s reputation as an economical 
runner depends to a great extent on his knowledge of this 




28 


LOCOMOTIVE MANAGEMENT. 


§9 


subject. In order that an engineer may get the best results 
from an engine, he must understand how to handle the reverse 
lever and throttle to the best advantage. There are several 
methods of increasing or diminishing the power that is being 
exerted by a locomotive, and the engineer should understand 
these methods, and, also, which one would be the most 
economical to use under a given set of conditions. With this 
knowledge at his command, the engineer’s chance of a good 
position on the Performance Sheet is greatly increased. 

34. When an engine is running with wide open throttle, 
and it becomes necessary to increase the power that is being 
developed, the reverse lever is dropped a notch or two toward 
the corner, as needed, until the proper amount of power is being 
developed. If the engine is running with the throttle partly 
closed, however, then the power developed can be increased 
by gradually opening the throttle, and if, when the throttle is 
wide open, still more power is required, the reverse lever can 
then be dropped to the proper notch for developing the 
required amount. 

The power that an engine is developing can be diminished 
either by partly closing the throttle, or by hooking up the 
reverse lever toward the center notch without touching the 
throttle. In the first case, the power is diminished by reducing 
the pressure of the steam by “ throttling, ” the same volume ot 
steam being used in the cylinders, but at a reduced pressure. 
In the second case, the power is diminished by reducing the 
volume of steam admitted into the cylinders without reducing 
the initial pressure. In the second method, the steam is worked 
more expansively; hence, under most conditions, this method 
will prove the more economical of the two. This is shown by 
the results given in the following table. If steam at 200 pounds 
absolute pressure is admitted to a cylinder for one-third, or 
8 inches, of the stroke and is then expanded for the remainder 
of the stroke, it will exert an average effective pressure of 
125 pounds per square inch on the piston; if steam at 140 
pounds absolute pressure is admitted for the 24 inches of the 
stroke it also will exert an average gauge pressure of 125 pounds . 




9 


LOCOMOTIVE MANAGEMENT. 


29 


per square inch, so that in both cases the steam will do the same 
amount of work each stroke. In the table, therefore, a com¬ 
parison is made of the amounts of heat and water used when 
working an engine at the 8-inch cut-off with steam at 200 
pounds pressure absolute, and at the 24-inch cut-off with steam 
at 140 pounds pressure absolute. 

TABLE 1. 


1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

7. 

Cut-Off 

Inches. 

Initial 

Pressure. 

(Absolute.) 

Ratio of 
Expansion. 

M.E.P. 

Work Done. 
Foot-Pounds. 

Heat Con¬ 
tained in 
Steam Used. 

Water Used 
in 

Doing Work. 
Pounds. 

8 

200 

3 

125 

31,800 

617.59 

.522 

24 

140 

1 

125 

31,800 

1,298.62 

1.118 


In the table, column 1 shows the cut-off of an engine as 
working 8 inches in the first case and 24 inches in the second. 
Column 2 shows the initial absolute pressure of the steam, 
which is 200 pounds absolute (185 pounds gauge) in the first 
case, and 140 pounds absolute and 125 pounds gauge in the 
second case. When working at 8-inch cut-off, the steam is 
expanded three times, as noted in column 3, whereas the ratio of 
expansion is 1 when working steam full stroke. Column 4 gives 
the mean effective pressure in both cases, which is 125 pounds 
per square inch. Column 5 shows the work done in foot¬ 
pounds, which is the same in each case. Column 6 shows the 
number of heat units contained in the steam that is used each 
stroke. When steam is used expansively, and is admitted 
at 200 pounds absolute pressure for only 8 inches of the stroke, 
it will be seen that 617.59 heat units are used each stroke; 
whereas, if the steam pressure is cut down to 140 pounds abso¬ 
lute, by the throttle or otherwise, and steam is used for 24 
inches of the stroke, the amount of heat used will be more than 
twice as great, or 1,298.62 heat units. Column 7 shows the 
amount of water used in each case. When using steam at 
200 pounds pressure, and at 8-inch cut-off, .522, or a little over 
\ pound, of water is used each stroke; whereas, if steam is 






















30 


LOCOMOTIVE MANAGEMENT. 


§9 


used full stroke at 140 pounds pressure, more than twice the 
amount is used, or 1.118 pounds each stroke. This table, 
therefore, shows that in doing the same amount of work, under 
the conditions named above, only about one-half the heat 
and one-half the water would be used if working at the 
8-inch cut-off than would be if working at the 24-inch cut-off. 

There are conditions, however, under which it will be found 
advantageous to use the throttle rather than the reverse lever to 
diminish the power exerted, and it is very important that an 
engineer should know where to use one method and where to 
use the other. 

35. Both experience and experiments show that consider¬ 
able more work can be done with a given amount of steam if it 
is used expansively than if it is not. The expansive property 
of steam is capable of doing work, and if it is not fully made 


TABLE 2. 


1. 

3. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 

10. 

Quantity of Steam 
Used in Pounds. 

Initial Pressure. 
(Absolute.) 

Ratio of Expansion. 

Pressure After Expan¬ 
sion. (Absolute.) 

Ph‘ 

H 

s 

Work Done. 
(Foot-Pounds.) 

Total Heat Contained. 
Heat Units at 

200 Lb. Pressure. 

Heat Contained at 
Final Pressure. 

Heat in Heat Units 
Saved. 

Comparison of Work 
Done. 

1.566 

200 

i 

200 

185 

47,064 

1,832.751 

1,832.751 

0 

1 

1.566 

200 

2 

100 

155 

78,864 

1,832.751 

1,806.954 

25.797 

1.67 

1.566 

200 

3 

66 

125 

95,400 

1,832.751 

1,793.206 

39.545 

2.02 

1.566 

200 

4 

50 

105 

106,848 

1,832.751 

1,774.637 

58.114 

2.27 


use of, that is, if the steam is not allowed to expand and do 
work, this expansive energy is wasted. Just why it is more 
economical to work steam expansively will be seen more clearly 
by comparing the total heat contained in a given quantity of 
steam used expansively and the amount of work that the 
steam will do in the cylinder, with the total heat and the 
amount of work done by the same quantity of steam that is not 























§9 


LOCOMOTIVE MANAGEMENT. 


31 


used expansively. This comparison is made in Table 2, in 
which we compare the quantity of heat used and the amount of 
work done by the same amounts of steam when expanded one, 
two, three, and four times, respectively. In the table, column 1 
gives the quantity of steam used in pounds, which is the same 
in all cases. Column 2 shows the initial pressure to be 200 
pounds absolute pressure. Column 3 shows the ratios of 
expansion. Column 4 gives the pressure after expansion or at 
the end of the stroke. Column 5 shows the mean effective 
pressure exerted on the piston in each case; that is, the average 
effective pressure throughout the stroke. Column 6 shows the 
work done in foot-pounds. Column 7 gives the total heat con¬ 
tained in the steam at 200 pounds pressure, which, of course, is 
the same in all cases. Column 8 shows the amount of heat 
contained in the steam at the final pressure. Column 9 shows 
the amount of heat saved by expanding the steam. The quanti¬ 
ties in this column are obtained by subtracting the quantities in 
column 8 from 1,832.751, the amount of heat in 1.566 pounds 
of steam before expansion. Column 10 shows the comparison 
of the amounts of work done with the same quantity of steam 
under different ratios of expansion. 

Comparing column 3 with column 8, it will be seen that 
when the ratio of expansion is 1, the amount of heat contained 
in the steam when it is exhausted to the atmosphere is 1,832.751 
heat units, which is the same amount as is contained in the 
steam before expansion; hence, all heat would be discharged to 
the atmosphere, and there would be no saving (see column 9). 
When the steam is expanded twice, the pressure will be reduced 
to 100 pounds absolute at the time the exhaust opens, and the 
heat then contained in the steam will be 1,806.954 heat units, 
which will be a saving of 25.797 heat units (see column 9). 
When steam is expanded three times, the final absolute pressure 
will be 66 pounds per square inch, and the heat contained in 
the steam at exhaust will be 1,793.206 heat units; hence, 39.545 
heat units will be saved, since it was made do work in the 
cylinder. With a ratio of expansion of 4, the pressure in 
the cylinder just before exhaust occurs will be 50 pounds per 
square inch absolute, and the amount of heat then contained 



32 


LOCOMOTIVE MANAGEMENT. 


§9 

in the steam will be 1,774.637 heat units, and there will be a 
saving of 58.114 heat units that were made do work in the 
cylinder. The amount of work done under the different ratios 
of expansion will be seen in column 6, while column 10 shows 
that if we take as unity the amount of work performed by the 
steam when the ratio of expansion is 1, the amount of work 
done by the steam when the ratio of expansion is 2 will be 1.67 
times as great; the amount of work done by the steam when 
the ratio of expansion is 3, will be 2.02 times as great; while 
the work done when the ratio of expansion is 4, will be 2.27 
times as great. The table shows, therefore, that the more steam 
is expanded, the greater will be the amount of its heat used 
in doing useful work, and the greater will be the amount of 
work the steam will perform. 

Both experience and experiments prove this to be true up 
to a certain point, and it has been found that great saving is 
effected by using steam expansively; however, as the ratio 
of expansion is increased beyond a certain point, it is found 
that the economy decreases greatly, and if carried to excess, 
expansion will prove more wasteful than non-expansion. This 
is due to the fact that condensation increases very rapidly in 
the cylinders at very short cut-offs. 

36. That it is always economical to work steam expansively 
has been fully established, and there is no doubt on that score; 
just how far to expand the steam, however, is the point that 
must be considered and decided by the engineer when he gets 
an engine. The point at which steam should be expanded to 
obtain the greatest economy may not be the same in any two 
engines and may vary somewhat with the speed, and it must 
be determined for each engine. For example, the 6-inch 
cut-off may be the most economical for one engine while the 
8-inch may be for another, and it is only by trial and careful 
observation that the most economical point of cut-off can be 
determined. A good plan to follow in the use of the reverse 
lever and throttle is as follows: After starting the train, open 
the throttle wide and handle the engine by means of the 
reverse lever until the lever is cut back to the notch that 





§9 


LOCOMOTIVE MANAGEMENT. 


33 


experience shows gives greatest economy for the speed; then, 
if necessary to further decrease the power being exerted by the 
locomotive, reduce the power by partly closing the throttle. 
In other words, keep the throttle wide open and handle the 
train by means of the reverse lever as long as it is below the 
notch that gives the greatest economy for the speed and weight 
of train; but when it is in the notch that gives the greatest 
economy, handle the train by means of the throttle. Also, 
it will be found good practice to always carry the reverse 
lever as near to the notch of greatest economy as possible and 
still handle the train at the proper speed, for the more the 
steam can be expanded below that point, the greater will be 
the resulting saving. By this method of handling the reverse 
lever and the throttle, the greatest economy can be obtained. 
However, the point or notch that will show the greatest economy 
must be determined for each engine, and if an engineer handles 
the same engine for any length of time he will soon determine 
the best point of cut-off. 

In the pooling system, an engineer may not have the same 
engine twice in several weeks, so that it is a difficult matter to 
determine the cut-off of greatest economy. As a rule, for the 
faster speeds it will probably be found in simple engines between 
the 8-inch and 6-inch cut-offs, but is seldom, if ever, above 
the 6-inch cut-off. When taking a strange engine, then, prob¬ 
ably the best plan of procedure will be to carry a wide-open 
throttle and handle the train by the reverse lever at fast speeds 
as long as the reverse lever is at or below the 8-inch cut-off, 
and if it becomes necessary to reduce the power that is being 
developed, with the reverse lever in the 8-inch cut-off, partially 
close the throttle 

In determining the positions in which the reverse lever and 
throttle are to be carried, the engineer must take into consider¬ 
ation the speed and weight of the train, the profile of the road, 
and the steaming qualities of the engine, and their positions 
therefore must depend on his judgment. He should bear in 
mind, however, that the best results will be obtained by 
working the steam as expansively as is possible under the 
conditions. 





34 LOCOMOTIVE MANAGEMENT. 


APPROACHING STATIONS. 

37. When approaching stations where stops are to be 
made, the engineer should take into consideration the nature 
of the grades and other conditions when calculating on the 
stops, and should shut off steam far enough from the station 
to permit the train being brought to a standstill at the proper 
point by means of an ordinary application of the brakes. 
The practice of running into stations at a high rate of speed, 
and stopping at the right place by applying the brakes to their 
full capacity, is a risky one. On some fast trains it may be 
necessary to run at high speed as close as possible to the station, 
in order to make the time, but ordinarily it is not advisable. 

As a train approaches a station at which it is not timed to 
stop, the speed, in most cases, should be reduced and a sharp 
lookout kept for signals, etc. that may be displayed. At 
stations where semaphores are provided, all trains should be 
prepared to stop in the event of the signal being against them. 

38. The whistle should be blown at the prescribed distance 
from the station, usually at the whistle-signal board, and the 
fire should be allowed to burn down a little before the throttle 
is closed, so as to prevent steam from escaping at the pop- 
valve. Also, as soon as the throttle is closed, the dampers 
should be shut, if necessary, to prevent popping. A fresh 
fire should not be put in engines burning soft coal just before 
the engine is shut off, as it is not needed then, and a large cloud 
of black smoke will be made. 

If the approach to the station is made through a town, the 
bell should be rung continuously to warn persons that may 
have occasion to cross the tracks that a train is approaching. 

39. On freight trains where stops are made by means of 
the hand-brakes, good judgment must be exercised in deter¬ 
mining the point a,t which to shut off steam. This should 
be done early enough to give the brakemen a chance to stop 
the train at the proper point. Many railway companies have 
special rules that allow freight trains to run past stations 
and through yards at a speed of only 6 or 8 miles per 
hour; passenger trains are usually not affected by such rules. 



§9 


LOCOMOTIVE MANAGEMENT. 


35 


When the throttle valve is closed and the engine is drifting, the 
reverse lever should always be moved toward full gear in 
whichever direction the engine is running. 


MAKING STOPS. 

40. On some runs where the time is fast and the stops 
close together, advantage must be taken of every second in order 
to make the time; hence, an engineer should keep a sharp eye 
on the time consumed in stopping and starting the train. In 
order to make time in stopping and starting a passenger train, 
the engineer should carefully study the conditions that govern 
the smooth handling of a train, and he should also be able to 
judge the distance in which he can stop his train from different 
speeds and with any number of cars he is liable to have in 
ordinary passenger trains. As a rule, an engineer has a land¬ 
mark for shutting off his throttle. This mark should be as 
close to the stopping point as he can make it, and still leave 
space enough to bring his train safely to a standstill with all the 
smoothness possible. Always remember that it is much easier 
to make time when the engine is working at short cut-off and 
the train is up to speed than when starting, so for that reason 
you should keep the speed up as long as it is possible. Of 
course, you may start as rapidly as possible, but in so doing it 
is well to remember that time cannot be made by running the 
engine in the corner at full stroke. Always cut the engine back 
soon after starting, say after a few revolutions, and then con¬ 
tinue to cut back as the speed increases. Conditions such as 
grades, the number of cars in the train, etc. govern the rapidity 
with which the reverse lever should be cut back. Also, it is 
well to have a high steam pressure for starting, and an engine 
should have every advantage possible in starting a heavy train, 
in order to keep up the steam pressure. 

In order to make a quick stop with a passenger train, the 
two-application method can be used to advantage. The first 
application should be a heavy one, because at that time the 
speed is high and the shoe friction low; consequently, the 
brakes will not hold as well as at low speeds, and there will be 



36 


LOCOMOTIVE MANAGEMENT. 


§9 


no danger of the wheels sliding. The first application should 
be held on until the speed is reduced to about 15 or 16 miles 
an hour, below which speed there is a liability of the wheels 
sliding. The brakes should then be released and the train 
brought to a stop by making a lighter application, releasing 
just before the train comes to a standstill. 


USE OF SAND. 

41. The use of sand is a subject that requires careful 
consideration on the part of the engineer. The use of sand 
to assist in stopping trains has been dealt with previously, 
therefore, the proper and improper methods of using sand to 
prevent the engine slipping will now be considered. At the 
present time it is a common thing to see engines loaded down 
to their maximum capacity; hence, in order to take such trains 
over the road, sand must frequently be used. Before beginning 
a trip, an engineer should know that the sand box on his engine 
is filled and that the sanding device, whether air or lever, is in 
working order. The pipes should be clear and in position to 
carry the sand to the top of the rail. When necessary to use 
sand in starting a train, it should be used in quantities just 
sufficient to prevent the engine slipping, and as soon as the 
train is in motion and the engine will handle it without danger 
of slipping, the use of sand should be discontinued. Under 
ordinary conditions, a train can be started and brought to 
speed without the use of sand, but with heavy trains it is often 
advisable to use it. When such conditions exist, the sand 
may be applied by dropping a little every two or three revolu¬ 
tions of the driving wheels. Of course, the condition of the 
rails and the weight of the train must be taken into considera¬ 
tion, and the sand must be used with judgment, as no hard- 
and-fixed rule can be given that will cover all conditions. 
A good rule to follow is to use sand as seldom as possible, and 
then to use only enough to prevent slipping. Sand increases the 
grip of the drivers on the rails, but it must be remembered that 
it also greatly increases the rolling friction; hence, sand makes 
a train pull much harder than it would on bare rails, and the 




9 


LOCOMOTIVE MANAGEMENT. 


37 


more sand used the greater is the retarding effect. This point 
is of special importance in heavy freight service on grades. 
Again, when sand is used too freely, it is apt to work into 
the bearings, causing them to heat. 

42. In climbing a grade with a heavy freight train, it 
is important that slipping be prevented, especially when the 
engine is laboring hard at slow speed, for to slip at such times 
will probably mean to stall the train before the drivers catch 
the rail again. 

In the event of the engine slipping, sand should never be 
dropped on the rail until after the throttle has first been closed 
sufficiently to stop the slipping, as otherwise serious damage 
may result. First close the throttle, drop the sand, and then 
open the throttle again. Sand should never be used on one 
side only, but should always be dropped on both sides at the 
same instant. When used on one side only, the axles are 
subjected to a severe twisting strain that may result in bent 
or broken rods or pins. 

On a foggy day, or when a rail is slippery from other reasons, 
it is good practice to drop just a little sand on the rails 
frequently enough to keep the tires dry, and thus prevent 
slipping. The most important thing to remember in connection 
with this subject, however, is to exercise good judgment in the 
amount used and in the conditions under which it is used. 


RFMING ENGINES IX COLD WEATHER. 

43. When running an engine in cold weather, certain pre¬ 
cautions must be observed that are not necessary at other times. 
For instance, care must be exercised in starting and stopping 
trains during very cold weather, in order to prevent drawbars 
being broken, since, when full of frost, drawbars snap off very 
easily. Trouble also occurs through the injector pipes freezing. 
One injector is generally all that is used to supply the boiler 
with water, and in cold weather the pipes of the other injector 
will freeze very quickly if some means is not adopted to prevent 
their doing so. It is necessary, therefore, to keep steam circu¬ 
lating through the pipes during the time the injector is not 






38 


LOCOMOTIVE MANAGEMENT. 


9 


working, which may be done by closing the overflow valve, and 
opening the steam valve sufficiently to permit a small quantity 
of steam to blow back through the injector, feedpipes, and hose 
into the tank. The frost cock on the discharge pipe should also 
be opened so as to permit steam to flow through this pipe and 
thus keep it from freezing. A pipe should lead from the frost 
cock to a point near the track so that the steam and water 
passing through it will not be blown over the engine and cover 
it with ice. 

Care must be taken that too much steam is not forced back 
into the tank, since there is danger of overheating the water, 
in which event the injectors will not work. In extremely 
cold w r eather, the suction pipe of the injector that is working 
will sometimes partially freeze and thus deliver an insufficient 
supply of water to the boiler. In this case, close the overflow 
valve, and blow steam back through the suction pipe to thaw 
out the ice. The best way to use the “heater” on a lifting 
injector is to almost close the steam-supply valve at the 
boiler, pull the operating handle wide open, and close the 
overflow valve. 

If an engine equipped with steam heaters is connected to a 
train without steam-heating apparatus, or is disconnected from 
a train entirely, a little steam should be constantly blown 
through the heating system to keep it from freezing. 

The air-pump steam supply must never be shut off entirely 
for any great length of time, and the reservoirs, drain cups, 
and other parts of the air-brake apparatus in which water is 
liable to accumulate, should be regularly drained. 


TAKING A “LIGHT” ENGINE OVER THE ROAD. 

44. When called upon to run “light,” and a pilot is not 
furnished, it must be remembered that the man in charge of the 
engine is conductor as well as engineer, and consequently he 
must, in addition to his ordinary duties, check up the train 
register and apply to the train dispatcher for orders; after 
receiving the orders he may proceed. If the engine fails on the 
road, the engineer must see that he is properly protected. 




§9 


LOCOMOTIVE MANAGEMENT. 


39 


In many cases, engines after having been in the shop for gen¬ 
eral repairs are run light to the division to which they are 
assigned; the engineer in charge must then be very careful, 
during the first fifty or one hundred miles of the trip, to see that 
none of the bearings get hot, which they are very liable to do. 


HOT BEARINGS. 

45. A hot bearing is one of the most annoying difficul¬ 
ties with which an engineer has to contend. When a bearing 
shows signs of heating, it should be carefully watched and every¬ 
thing possible done to prevent its becoming hot; for, if it becomes 
hot enough to smoke or set fire to the packing, the question of 
getting over the road and making time becomes a serious one, 
especially on important fast trains. On local runs, where stops 
are made at every station, there is usually sufficient time for 
the engineer to occasionally look around the engine; in such 
cases, he may find the bearing while it is warming up, and 
should then take steps to prevent its becoming hot. On fast 
trains, however, where long runs are made, with but few stops, 
the chances of hot bearings become greater; usually, in this 
case, the first hint that the enginemen have that some part of 
the engine is warming up is when they smell the hot box, or 
bearing, or whatever it may be. In that event, if the engine is 
so piped as to permit it, water should be turned on the hot 
bearing for the remainder of the run, when the trouble should 
be reported so that the parts giving trouble can be properly 
cared for. 

Whenever a bearing begins to get hot, and it can be done at 
the time, the oil supply should be increased, and if it is a tender 
truck, engine truck, or driving journal, the box should be 
examined at the first opportunity and packed, if time permits. 
If it is found that the packing has settled away from the jour¬ 
nal, it is reasonable to assume that the trouble has been found, 
and in this case repacking the cellar will effect a cure. 

46. Using: Water on Hot Bearings. —Many engines 
are now equipped with pipes so arranged that water can be 
applied to almost all the crankpins and journals while the 



40 


LOCOMOTIVE MANAGEMENT. 


§9 


engine is running. On important trains, where delay means 
missing connections, water, if properly handled, can be used 
on hot bearings to advantage in order to get the train in on 
time. If a bearing shows signs of heating, the best thing to 
do is to examine it to see if anything is broken, and then 
turn on a sufficiently large stream of water to prevent its 
getting hotter. This will generally keep the journal in con¬ 
dition to run without serious trouble. If the bearing is very 
hot and the waste is on fire, the stream of water will likely put 
out the fire at once, and keep the bearing from being damaged 
until the terminal is reached. 

If the bearing is very hot and no water pipes are provided, it 
must be treated differently. If the packing is burning, just 
throw sufficient water on to put out the fire; then, removing 
the old waste, and all the water possible, pack the box, or 
cellar, with new oily waste. It is a very poor plan to cool off 
a very hot journal with water while the engine is standing. A 
journal that runs hot and is cooled with water every time the 
engine stops is almost sure to break before long. 

The consensus of opinion is that in cases of emergency, cold 
water may be used on hot bearings as a temporary relief in 
order to bring the train in on time; but, at the earliest oppor¬ 
tunity, attention should be given the troublesome bearing at 
the shops so that the use of water may be discontinued. It is 
also advisable to have pipes so arranged that the water can be 
admitted to the cellar and near the back of the journal; but 
when no such provisions have been made, the best place to 
apply it is between the box and the wheel hub. 

47. A hot driving box, on an engine having spring saddles 
and springs over the boxes, can be relieved by fitting a block 
between the under side of the spring saddle and the upper side 
of the frame; by this means, when the engine is running, the 
block will keep some of the weight off that box. If the box con¬ 
tinues to run very hot, and sticks on the wedges, slacking off the 
wedges may help matters; if not, the wheel may be run up on 
a wedge and a thicker block put between the top of the frame 
and the spring saddle to take more weight off the hot box. 



9 


LOCOMOTIVE MANAGEMENT. 


41 


Fresh packing can often be put into a driving-box or engine- 
truck cellar without letting down the cellar by using a thin 
packing iron and small quantities of packing at a time. Thin 
slices of hard soap shoved in beneath a hot journal will often 
work wonders. A little graphite, also, has a good effect on 
anything that is running hot. 

If a tender box runs hot after the usual cures have been 
applied and there is a spare brass on the engine, replacing 
the old brass may remedy the trouble. 

48. Main-rod brasses sometimes run hot on account of the 
rod having a twist; that is, the holes through the brasses at 
each end of the rod are not true with each other, and, conse¬ 
quently, when keyed up snug, they bind on the pins. The 
crosshead-pin bearing may be out of true, causing the main-pin 
bearing to run hot. In such a case, slack off the key in this 
crosshead end and see if it frees the other end of the rod. This 
is a common cause of a hot main pin. Also, brasses are 
sometimes fitted on the pins in such a manner that they can 
be, and often are, keyed too tight. In such cases, the keys 
should be slackened off enough to insure the brasses having 
sufficient play to prevent heating. New main-pin brasses that 
are fitted closely in the straps expand more than the straps 
when they get heated and pinch on the pins, so they are sure to 
damage both brass and pin. 

If a crankpin begins to heat up, the oil-cup cover should be 
taken off to make sure that there is enough oil in the cup and 
that the oil passages are not stopped up with dirt or some for¬ 
eign substance. If the cup is fitted with a plunger, or needle, 
the feed should be examined to see that it is working freely and 
has the proper amount of lift. The amount of oil fed by the 
majority of rod cups can be increased by slacking off the lock¬ 
nut on the top of the cup, screwing out the adjusting screw a 
small amount, and then tightening up the locknut again. 

When crankpins run so hot that oil will not remain in the 
cups for any length of time, the following treatment will prove 
beneficial: Having filled the oil hole in the strap with yellow- 
soap shavings or graphite and poured in a little valve oil, 



42 


LOCOMOTIVE MANAGEMENT. 


§9 


replace the oil cup and fill it with this oil. If it is fed from 
a cup forged solid on the rod, remove the oil-cup cap and 
feeder, and force some fine soap shavings or graphite down 
to the pin; then, having filled this hole with valve oil, replace 
the feeder and its cap. 

In cases where the brasses are babbitted and they get hot 
enough to melt it, do not stop until the babbitt is all thrown 
out, as the oil way is liable to be full of the hot metal, and, if 
allowed to cool, will give lots of trouble. 

If an eccentric gets hot on account of the straps being too 
tight on the cam, it may be relieved by loosening the nuts on 
the bolts that go through the lugs, and putting some pieces of 
tin, pasteboard; thin pieces of wood, or anything else that will 
serve the purpose, in the joint between the two halves of the 
strap; then tighten the nuts again. If an eccentric gets hot 
and the strap is loose on the cam, it will be necessary to 
examine the oil hole, and if found stopped up, it will have to 
be cleaned out. A little valve oil applied to a hot eccentric is 
about the best remedy known. Sometimes an eccentric gets 
hot because the valves are insufficiently lubricated. The 
remedy for this is obvious. Never use water on a hot eccentric 
strap, as in most cases they are made of cast iron and are liable 
to break under such treatment. 

If guides get hot on account of being closed too .tight, loosen 
the nuts on the bolts at each end and put in a thin liner of paper 
or tin between the guide blocks and the guides; then retighten 
the nuts. Never cool off hot guides with water, as they are 
liable to spring or warp to such an extent as to ruin them. 

INJECTORS FAIL ON THE ROAD. 

49. When an engineer finds that his injectors fail to supply 
water to the boiler for some reason or other, he should immedi¬ 
ately try to find the cause. If his efforts to start the injector 
fail, he should stop the engine in time to prevent the water 
getting so low in the boiler as to require knocking out the fire; 
also, the dampers should be closed, and, if necessary, the fire 
dampened by covering it over heavily with fine wet coal, so that 
the boiler will not blow off and waste water. 







LOCOMOTIVE MANAGEMENT. 


43 


§9 


Ordinarily, the injector on the right side is used to the exclu¬ 
sion of the one on the left; and, as a consequence, the left 
injector soon becomes incrusted with lime or scale to such an 
extent that it will not work. In that event, the failure of the 
right injector on the road means that the engineer has lost the 
use of both injectors. This trouble may be avoided by using 
the left injector every day, or, at least, sufficiently to keep it in 
working order. A good plan is to use the left injector while 
feeding before going out on the road, while stopping at stations, 
and at other times when the engine is standing still; using the 
right injector only while running. Another plan is to use the 
injectors alternately. By this means both injectors will be 
kept in good working order, and should one fail on the road, 
the other one is in condition to be used. 

In the event of both the injectors failing to work, first ascer¬ 
tain if there is sufficient water in the tank; or, if the weather is 
cold, whether the manhole has been frozen over, thus making 
the water tank air-tight. Neither of these being the cause, the 
trouble may be due to the strainer becoming clogged; in this 
case, steam should be forced back through the suction pipe by 
closing the overflow valve from the injector and opening the 
steam valve. This may force out the obstructions in the 
strainer, and the injector will readily raise water again. Should 
the result not be favorable, take the hose down and clean the 
strainer. Then examine the hose, and if water will run 
through the hose, flow steam back through the suction pipe to 
be sure that there is no stoppage. Then couple up the hose 
and again try to raise water. The trouble may be due to one 
of the defects mentioned in Locomotive Boilers , Part 2, in which 
case proceed in accordance with the instructions there given. 

In most cases, if there is sufficient water in the tank and the 
tank valve is open, tbe injector will start after steam is blown 
back into the tank so as to blow any obstruction out of the 
strainer or hose, and this remedy should be the one first tried 
whenever the injector fails to start. If, while trying to start 
the injector, the water in the boiler becomes so low as to 
endanger the crown sheet, it will be necessary either to bank the 
fire with green coal so heavily that it will protect the crown 



44 


LOCOMOTIVE MANAGEMENT. 


§9 


sheet, especially with the fire-door open, or else draw the fire. 
Should it become necessary to draw the fire in cold weather, 
care should be taken to thoroughly drain all pipes, etc. of 
water, to prevent damage through freezing. All drain cocks 
and drain plugs should be left open, the boiler and tank 
emptied, and the suction hose disconnected; also, the siphon 
pipe to the steam gauge should be disconnected and the siphon 
emptied. The sight-feed lubricator should be drained. In fact, 
the boiler and all boiler fittings should be drained of all water 
to prevent possible injury through freezing. The engine should 
then be disconnected and made ready to be towed in. When 
an engine is disconnected it is greatly out of balance, so that it 
is not safe to haul it at high speeds. The maximum safe speed 
for an engine in this condition is about 20 miles per hour. 
In 1899, a disconnected engine on the Wabash Railroad, having 
56-inch drivers, was hauled at a speed of 40 miles per hour on 
63-pound rails; afterwards, it was found that 10 rails were 
broken, while 772 rails were badly surface bent by the blows 
of the unbalanced drivers. 

THROTTLE OR DRY-PIPE LEAKING. 

50. A leaky throttle or dry pipe will be indicated by steam 
escaping from the cylinder cocks when the throttle is closed; 
but, if steam does escape from the cylinder cocks under those 
conditions, the engineer should be sure that the steam valve to 
the lubricator is closed before he decides where the trouble lies, 
because the steam may be entering through the oil pipes instead 
of through a leak. The condition of the steam as it escapes 
through the cylinder cocks will help one judge whether the 
trouble is in the throttle or in the steam pipe. 

In the event of the throttle leaking, there will be a constant 
flow of dry steam to the cylinders; but if the dry pipe leaks, 
there will probably be more or less water carried with the 
steam, depending on what part of the dry pipe contains the leak. 
If the dry pipe lies up near the shell of the boiler and the leak 
occurs in the top of the pipe, the steam leaking through will be 
dry, and the boiler will have to be rather full of water before 
wet steam will show at the cylinder cocks with the engine 



§9 


LOCOMOTIVE MANAGEMENT. 


45 


standing. With the leak in the under side of pipe, however, 
water will leak to the cylinders when the water is carried high 
in the boiler. 


POUNDS. 

51. Causes and Remedies. —A pound in an engine is 
destructive to the engine, besides being a great source of annoy¬ 
ance to the engineer, and if it is of such nature that it can be 
remedied, this should be done as soon as possible. A common 
cause of an engine pounding is worn main-rod brasses, which 
cause a sharp pound as the main pin passes the centers. 

Loose wedges in the driving-box jaws cause a pounding that 
should be located and remedied as soon as possible, as there is 
danger of breaking the driving boxes. To locate such a jiound, 
place the engine on the top quarter, block the driving wheels, 
put the reverse lever in the corner, and admit a little steam to 
the cylinder. Work the lever back and forth, and the action of 
the steam in the cylinder, as it is being shifted from one end 
of the cylinder to the other, will cause the boxes to be worked 
back and forth in their pedestal jaws, if there is enough play 
there to cause pounding. This method will also locate loose or 
broken driving-box brasses. 

If there is too much play between the guide bars, the cross¬ 
heads will cause a very disagreeable pound when the engine is 
working hard at slow speeds, and, also, there wall be a tendency 
to bend the piston rods. This pound should be stopped either 
by closing the guide bars the proper amount or by lining out 
the crosshead gibs, or retinning them, as the practice may be. 

A piston loose on the piston rod, or the rod loose in the 
crosshead, causes a severe pound, and sometimes the piston 
works off far enough to knock out the front cylinder head. 
The remedy for this defect is obvious. 

Worn side-rod brasses are liable to cause a pound; if they are 
very loose their side motion will cause them to rattle badly. 

If the main rod has been lined out too long, it will allow the 
piston to strike the front cylinder head; or, if lined out too 
short, it will strike the back head. In either case, a bad pound 
will result when the main pin passes the front or back center, 





46 


LOCOMOTIVE MANAGEMENT. 


§9 


respectively. This pound can be easily located, when the 
throttle is closed and the engine is drifting, by noting on which 
center the pound occurs. Another way is to note on which 
end of the guides the crosshead overtravels the travel marks. 
If the crosshead passes the marks on the back end of the guides, 
the main rod is too short and should be lengthened by changing 
the liners from the back to the front side of the main-pin 
brasses. If the crosshead passes the marks on the front end 
of the guides, the rod is too long and should be shortened by 
taking the liners from in front of the brass and placing them 
back of it, in this way dividing the crosshead travel equally 
between the travel marks. 

Badly worn expansion pads on the boiler will cause a bad 
pound when the engine is working slow and hard, as they allow 
the back end of the boiler to work sidewise on the frame. If 
this working is allowed to continue for any length of time, the 
bolts through the cylinder and smokebox will become loose and 
cause the steam-pipe joints to leak. 

A cylinder that is loose on the frame, or a broken frame, 
will cause a pound that will jar the whole engine. Both of 
these defects are serious and demand great care in getting the 
engine over the road. If this pound begins while pulling an 
unimportant train, side track the train; but if a first-class train, 
endeavor to take the train to the nearest place where the engine 
can be exchanged for another. The disabled engine should be 
run to the shop light. A loose driving-box brass will produce 
a bad pound that sometimes is difficult to locate. 

In trying to locate pounds and their causes, it is a good plan 
to place the crankpin on the top quarter on the side you wish 
to test, then block the wheels, and, admitting a little steam 
into the cylinders, work the reverse lever back and forth. By 
closely watching each connection in turn as the piston causes 
a pull or a thrust to the crosshead, the cause of pounding 
can be very easily located. If possible, an engine having 
a very serious pound should not be run, especially if the 
pound is inside of the cylinder; since, in this case, it is a 
certain indication of a defect that sooner or later will end in 
a breakdown. 




9 


LOCOMOTIVE MANAGEMENT. 


47 


CYLINDERS GROANING. 

52. Cylinders that have been run some distance without 
sufficient lubrication, and, also, in many cases, where the pack¬ 
ing rings have been allowed to run until the corners wear sharp, 
often groan so badly as to make one think that they are being 
torn to pieces. This groaning, if due to insufficient lubrication, 
can generally be stopped very quickly by giving both cylinders 
about a tablespoonful of valve oil, or a little dry graphite, 
through the relief valves. If, after introducing the oil, the 
cylinders continue to groan, the trouble is in the packing rings, 
in which case they should be taken out in the shop and the 
sharp corners filed off. When this has been done, the groaning 
will probably cease. 


BLOWS. 

53. Causes of Blows. —Listening to an engine continu¬ 
ally blowing is most annoying to the engineer, and, besides, 
the blow is costly to the company. Sometimes the blow 
may not be very serious, but, nevertheless, it is a waste of 
steam, and wasted steam means wasted fuel. Through a 
desire to make a good showing of economy in the amount of 
valve oil used, the supply is sometimes cut down to so small a 
quantity that it is impossible for an engine to be run on the 
allowance without * the valve seats and cylinder packing 
becoming cut or worn in a short time; the result is that many 
times the value of the valve oil saved passes away as wasted 
steam. However, while limiting the supply of valve oil may 
eventually lead to a blow, it is not the only cause of this 
trouble. Valves that have not been properly fitted on their 
seats, badly fitted balance strips, broken springs under the 
strips, balance strips stuck down, broken cylinder packing 
rings, cylinder packing rings that have become so worn by 
long use as to become too small for the cylinder, rings that 
have worked around so that the joint is at the top or side 
of the cylinder, broken valves, broken seats, etc. are one and 
all likely to‘be met with at any time, and invariably cause 
the engine to blow. 


48 


LOCOMOTIVE MANAGEMENT. 


§9 

54. Testing for Blows. —When it is found that an engine 
blows, tests should be made to ascertain, if possible, where the 
trouble lies. A broken valve may cause a steady blow; just how 
hard depends on how badly the valve is broken. The test for a 
broken valve is given in Art. 25, Breakdowns. 

That part of the valve seat that most frequently breaks is the 
bridge, thus causing a heavy, though not constant, blow. The 
test for a broken bridge is given in Art. 23, Breakdowns. 

55. Sometimes, when an engine having balanced valves is 
given steam after having drifted down a long hill, there will be 
quite a strong, constant blow. This is caused by one of the 
strips of the valve getting stuck down, the spring beneath it 
probably not having sufficient strength to raise it because there 
is considerable gummy substance on the strip. 

As a rule, a blow from a valve is more steady than is a 
cylinder-packing blow. Cylinder packing blows hardest during 
the first half of the stroke. To test for a valve blowing, place 
the engine on the top quarter and put the reverse lever in mid¬ 
gear. This position will bring the valve over the center of the 
seat, and if the valve is tight there will be no blow. Open the 
cylinder cocks and if steam blows through them, it shows that 
there is a leak between the valve and its seat. If steam shows 
at the front cylinder cock, it indicates that there is a leak into 
the front port; if at the back cylinder cock, the leak is into the 
back port. If the strips are blowing, the steam will go directly 
into the exhaust cavity and out at the exhaust pipe. Now, if 
the valve has inside clearance, steam will also show at both 
cylinder cocks, while if there is no clearance and the reverse 
lever is moved ahead slightly, so as to connect the exhaust 
cavity with the front steam passage, without uncovering the 
back steam passage, steam will show at the front cylinder cock; 
if the lever is moved backwards, so as to connect the exhaust 
cavity with the back steam passage, steam will show at the back 
cylinder cock. The other side may be tested in the same way. 
If the valves are tight, test the cylinder packing by placing the 
side of the engine to be tested on the forward bottom eighth, 

. block the wheels, or set the brake, open the cylinder cocks, and 



§9 


LOCOMOTIVE MANAGEMENT. 


49 


drop the reverse lever in the forward corner; then open the 
throttle, and if the steam blows through the back cylinder cock 
as well as through the front one, the cylinder packing is blow¬ 
ing. The engine may be placed in several positions and tried 
for piston blows. If steam blows out of the cylinder cock at 
the opposite end of the cylinder to where it is admitted, it 
usually denotes leaky cylinder packing. A good idea of the 
condition of the pistons can be formed by leaving the cylinder 
cocks opeh when starting a train and closely watching the flow 
of steam from them. 

If the packing rings are broken and the piston blows badly, 
it will weaken the exhaust on that side of the engine, especially 
if the engine is worked slowly. If the piston packing is worn 
slightly smaller than the cylinder, it may blow some when the 
engine is working light or at short cut-off; but when the engine 
is working hard and at long cut-off, there may be no blow. 
This is due to the fact that when the engine is working hard 
and at long cut-off, there 
will be sufficient steam 
pressure behind the pack¬ 
ing rings during the 
whole length of the 
stroke to hold them out 
against the walls of the 
cylinder and make a 
tight joint during the 
full stroke. When work¬ 
ing the engine with short 
cut-off, the pressure at 
the end of the stroke 
may not be sufficient to 
do this, and the piston will then blow during the latter part 
of the stroke. From this it will be seen that it is best to try 
the piston packing when the steam pressure is low. 

56. Test for Blow in Piston Valve. —To test for a 
blow through the rings of a piston valve, place the valve in 
mid-position, as shown in Fig. 6, so as to cover the steam 
































50 


LOCOMOTIVE MANAGEMENT. 


§9 


passages leading to the two ends of the cylinder. With this 
piston valve, steam is admitted to the chamber S, and the cavity 
c of the valve is filled with steam as long as the throttle is 
open; consequently, if the packing rings are broken or badly 
worn, or if the bush is badly worn, steam will blow between 
the rings and the bush into the exhaust passage E and then 
out, as shown by the arrows, thus causing a blow. Also, steam 
will pass the packing rings into the steam passages a and 6, 
thence into the two ends of the cylinder, and will show at the 
cylinder cocks, provided they are open. 

If the rings in one end, say the front end of the valve, give 
out, it will cause a continuous blow through the exhaust, the 
sound of which, as the engine is running along, will, of course, 
be loudest between the regular exhausts of the engine. 

A loose valve bushing, also, will allow steam to blow 
between the cylinder casting and the bush, and thence out 
through the exhaust, causing a continuous blow that will be 
difficult to distinguish from a bad valve blow. 


A BROKEN STEAM CHEST, THE CAUSE AND PREVENTATIVE. 

57. Burst steam chests are generally the result of reversing 
the engine when the throttle is closed tight and the engine is 
running at high speed. When an engine is reversed while 
running, the cylinders are converted into air compressors, draw¬ 
ing the hot gases into the cylinders from the smokebox and 
compressing them into the steam chests, steam pipes, and dry 
pipes. Of course, with the throttle closed, the gases cannot 
escape into the boiler through the throttle, and the pressure, 
consequently, accumulates rapidly to such an extent that the 
weakest parts, usually the steam chests, give way. To prevent 
breaking the steam chests, if it becomes necessary to reverse the 
engine while running at a high rate of speed, open the throttle 
as soon as the engine is reversed, so as to allow the pressure 
accumulated in the steam chests to escape into the boiler. It 
will then be impossible to get more than boiler pressure in the 
steam chests, since the pop-valves will take care of the pressure 
in the boiler; and as the steam chests are designed to carry 




LOCOMOTIVE MANAGEMENT. 


51 


§9 

boiler pressure, they will not break. Another method for pre¬ 
venting excessive steam-chest pressure, which is used quite 
extensively on many roads, consists in using a combined 
vacuum-and-pressure valve similar in principle to that shown 
in Fig. 16, Compound Locomotives. 


EXHAUST OUT OF SQUARE. 

58. There are many causes that may have the effect of 
making the exhaust sound “ lame.” One of the most common 
causes, especially with engines having long, crooked eccentric 
rods, is that one or both of the valves become dry. When the 
valves get dry for want of oil, they move much harder than 
usual and cause the rods to spring sufficiently to make the 
exhaust sound out of square. Increasing the oil supply, or 
partly closing the throttle for an instant, will, in most cases, 
overcome the difficulty. Other causes are, a bent rocker arm, 
lifting arm, or loose rocker boxes. Also, if the tumbling shaft is 
sprung, it will allow one link to hang lower than the other, and 
whichever side the low link is on will have the heaviest exhaust 
while the engine is running forwards, and the lightest exhaust 
when the engine is backing up. 

Eccentric rods are usually fastened to the eccentric straps by 
bolts passing through slotted holes. If these bolts loosen and 
allow the rod to move, it will affect the sound of the exhaust. 
If the rod slips a short distance and then catches again, there 
will be one heavy and one light exhaust on that side; but if 
the bolts are very loose, the exhaust will be irregular. Slipped 
eccentrics, or loose strap bolts, also cause the exhaust to 
sound out of square; but at the present time, on the majority 
of railroads, the eccentrics are keyed on the axle so well that 
they seldom slip. A bent eccentric rod will cause one heavy 
and one light exhaust on that side. 

On engines having double-exhaust nozzles, one of the tips 
sometimes becomes gummed up more than the other, which 
will have the effect of making the engine sound lame. The 
beats may be square, but the exhaust coming through the 
gummed nozzle will be sharper than the others. 





52 LOCOMOTIVE MANAGEMENT. §9 


59. If the high-pressure cylinder packing is blowing on 
one side of a Vauclain compound, it will cause the exhausts on 
that side to be heavier than on the other. The reason is this: 
The steam that blows past the high-pressure piston goes into 
the low-pressure cylinder and increases the pressure there, and, 
as a result, the final exhaust is stronger. 

A valve yoke will sometimes break in such a manner as to 
make the exhaust very badly out of square when the lever is 
hooked up, but it will not be nearly so bad when working in 
full gear. 

FAILURE OF SPARK-ARRESTING DEVICES OR ASH-PAN. 

60. In cases where the spark-arresting arrangement, such 
as cones, nettings, etc., gets into a condition that permits fire 
to be thrown out to a dangerous extent, care must be exercised 
to prevent setting fire to properties along the route. For this 
reason the engine should be worked as light as possible when 
passing through towns or other places where a fire may be 
started. The throwing of sparks can be prevented, to some 
extent, by keeping the firebox door partly opened, as there 
will then be less air passing through the fire, and, hence, less 
liability of throwing out hot cinders. In the event of the 
spark-arresting device failing, it will be well to choose places 
for shaking the grates where no danger is apt to be caused by 
live sparks. 

If a hole makes its appearance in the ash-pan, a piece of 
old sheet metal, a lump of coal, a flat stone, or a brick, etc. 
can often be made to cover it, thereby preventing fire and ashes 
from falling along the track. These defects should be reported 
for repairs at the end of the run. 


REVERSE LEVER CAUGHT AT SHORT CUT-OFF. 

61. On some styles of engines, the reverse lever may be 
caught at short cut-off every time a spring or spring hanger 
breaks and allows the engine to settle down, more or less, on 
its boxes, as this will cause the top of the wheel to catch the 
reach rod and hold it firmly. When the engine is stopped with 
the reach rod caught in this manner, the cut-off may be so 





9 


LOCOMOTIVE MANAGEMENT. 


53 


short that the engine cannot move the train; in order to free 
the reach rod and reverse lever, it may be necessary to take the 
pin out of the front end of the reach rod and tumbling-shaft 
lever and allow the links to carefully drop down on link blocks. 
The engine will then be in full gear forwards and can be moved 
as desired. If the trouble is due to a broken spring, or spring 
hanger, or any other defect in the spring rigging, block up as 
explained in the Paper on Breakdowns. Then couple up 
the reach rod and tumbling-shaft lever, and the train is ready 
to proceed. 


OFF THE TRACK. 

62. It is impossible to do more than give general directions 
for the replacing of engines upon the track, for the reason that 
the conditions in any two cases are seldom the same. In the 
event of two or three pairs of wheels dropping off the rails at 
slow speed, it is not so very serious a matter, and the engine 
can generally be run up on the track again by means of her 
own steam, a block or two, perhaps, being used to assist the 
wheels in getting up on the rails. If the engine is going fast 
when it goes off the track, a wrecking car and crew will 
probably be required to assist in getting it back again. An 
engine will generally go on the rails easiest by taking it back 
over the same route it went off. 

In the event of an engine going off the track, a few minutes 
inspection should show whether or not it can be gotten on again 
without assistance. Sometimes, if the engine is close to the 
rails and has not settled down in the road bed, it can be gotten 
on the track again without assistance other than a wrecking 
frog and wedges, or a couple of car replacers. In some cases, 
another engine may be necessary to assist in pulling the derailed 
one on the track. The engineer of the engine that is pulling 
should always be prepared to stop quickly, in case things 
do not go just as they are expected. Good judgment must be 
exercised in placing wedges or replacers in position, for a little 
thought in regard to this may save hours of hard work. 

It frequently happens that engines get off the track so badly 
that nothing can be done toward getting them on again without 





54 


LOCOMOTIVE MANAGEMENT. 


§9 


the aid of heavy tools. In such cases, no time should be lost in 
sending for the wrecking car and crew. If the engine is badly 
listed to one side, or stands in such a position that some of the 
firebox sheets are bare, the fire should be banked deeply or put 
out, so as to prevent any part of the boiler becoming overheated. 

If the engine has to be jacked up, a lot of work can be saved 
by putting nuts, or pieces of iron, between the bottom of the 
driving boxes and the pedestal binders, so that the wheels will 
lift with the frame. As the engine is lifted, blocking should be 
put in place underneath it to “hold good” all that the engine 
is raised. If the engine truck does not raise with the rest of the 
engine, chain it to the frame, or it will have to be pried up and 
blocking put beneath it. If the truck wheels stand at an angle, 
they should be pulled into line with a tail-rope or chain. When 
the engine has been raised high enough, cross-ties may be laid, 
and rails put under the wheels. Then the best way to get it 
upon the main track will be to break the joints and swing the 
ends of the rails around far enough to connect with the rails 
on which the engine rests. The engine may then be moved 
out, the main track swung back, and the rails again connected. 


REDUCING THE FORCE OF COLLISION. 

63. When in danger of a head-end collision, the engineer 
should close the throttle valve, whistle for brakes (if hand¬ 
brakes are used), open the sand lever, reverse the engine, and 
open the throttle. If the train is equipped with air brakes 
instead of hand-brakes, close the throttle, make an* emergency 
application of the brakes, and open the sand lever, but do 
not reverse the engine. By proceeding thus, the force of the 
collision will generally be reduced, if the collision is not 
entirely prevented. 

If, in the case of a train with hand-brakes, it is seen that 
a collision is inevitable, be sure to close the throttle (the engine 
being reversed) before the engines come together to prevent 
injury through escaping steam; also, if left open and the engine 
is not disabled by the collision, it may escape and cause further 
damage. The engineer should not leave his engine, no matter 





9 


LOCOMOTIVE MANAGEMENT. 


55 


how imminent the danger, until after he has used all means of * 
stopping, or at least checking the speed of the train. Then, 
however, if a violent or dangerous collision is unavoidable, he 
may protect himself by jumping off the engine, or remain on it, 
as he deems best; but he should never think of jumping until 
after he has done all in his power to prevent the collision, 
especially if he is on a passenger train. 

If a collision is likely to occur on a railroad crossing and 
cannot be avoided by either train, the train occupying the 
crossing, if moving, should be brought to a standstill, if possible, 
before the approaching train strikes it. By this means the 
moving train will simply cut its way through the other, whereas, 
if both were moving when cut in two, the cars to the rear of the 
cut would crash forwards and pile up the cars of both trains on 
the crossing. Even though the engineer of the train on the 
crossing sees that a collision is unavoidable and that he cannot 
stop his train before being struck, yet he should try his best 
to stop, for the reason that the slower the train is moving when 
struck, the less will be the damage resulting from the collision. 

64. Damaged Front End or Smokestack. —In the 
event of a collision where the front end is damaged to such an 
extent that the steam pipes are both broken, the engine will 
have to be towed to the shop. If one steam pipe only is 
broken, the engine may be run in by making a blind joint in 
the niggerhead to keep steam out of the disabled steam pipe. 
If only the front end door or door ring is broken, steam enough 
to get the engine in can be kept up by boarding up the opening 
or by the use of a canvas curtain. 

In case the smokestack gets knocked off, about the only 
remedy is to knock the heads out of a barrel and fasten it 
upright over the hole by means of bell cord, securing it to the 
hand rails. _ 

POINTS ON WHICH ENGINE IS CARRIED. 

65. The entire weight of an engine is carried by the truck 
wheels, driving wheels, and engine-trailer wheels, if it has the 
latter; yet it is so arranged that this weight does not bear 
directly on each of the boxes, when the springs and equalizers 




56 


LOCOMOTIVE MANAGEMENT. 


§9 


„ are in good order. For instance, the forward end of an ordinary 
American eight-wheeled engine, although carried by the 
wheels of the truck, only rests on the center casting of the 
engine truck. The weight on the drivers is carried by 
the springs, these rest on the boxes, and the weight of the 
engine is transmitted to them by the spring hangers, equalizers, 
and equalizer fulcrums. The points where the frame comes in 
contact with, and rests on, this spring gear (namely, the fulcrum 
points of the equalizers), and the center casting of the engine 
truck are really the points that are carrying the weight of an 
eight-wheeled engine. On a Mogul, the weight is carried on the 
fulcrum points of the equalizers. 



BREAKDOWNS 


BREAKDOWNS COMMON TO AEE TYPES 
OF ENGINES. 

1. The object of explaining breakdowns at length is to 
give enginemen a thorough knowledge of what to do in the 
event of a breakdown, in order to quickly get the engine in 
shape to handle the train, or part of it, and to clear the main 
line in the shortest time possible. The repairs made in an 
emergency of this kind should be such as can be done most 
readily, and yet insure safety, and the aim should be to cause 
as little delay as possible, both to the train and to the 
general traffic. Just what should be done in any given case 
will, of course, depend largely on conditions. On a busy line 
it may be policy to be towed in to clear before attempting 
to make repairs that, were there sufficient time, could readily be 
made on the spot and the train brought through all right. The 
engineer, therefore, should exercise good judgment in all cases 
of breakdowns, and act promptly and vigorously, remedying 
the trouble as quickly and thoroughly as possible with the 
means at his command. 

In dealing with the following breakdowns it is assumed that, 
in case of an accident that necessitates stopping the train, the 
train crew will take all precautions necessary to protect the 
train, so that no further mention will be made of this point, as 
it would simply have to be repeated in each case. It must be 
borne in mind, however, that in the event of a breakdown you 
must proceed in accordance with the rules and regulations of 
your road regarding the protection of the train, notifying 
officials, etc. 

For notice of copyright, see page immediately following the title Page. 

§9 



58 


BREAKDOWNS. 


9 


DISCONNECTING RODS. 

2. General Considerations. —In the event of an acci¬ 
dent that makes it necessary to disconnect one side of the 
engine, care should be exercised by those doing the work 
to see that all the parts it is necessary to remove are taken 
down, so that they will not cause further trouble. On the 
other hand, only such parts as it is necessary to remove 
should be taken down; time is important in a case of this 
kind, and it should not be wasted in doing unnecessary work. 
For instance, if the cylinder, piston, or piston rod is damaged, 
but the rods, cross-head, guides, etc., are not, it may be easier 
and quicker to let the piston move in the cylinder than to 
disconnect and take the rods down. In this case see that the 
moving rod and piston are properly lubricated. The cross¬ 
head and guides are depended on to carry the front end of 
the main rod. 

If it becomes necessary to disconnect both sides of an engine 
to tow the engine in, the same precautions should be taken as 
when disconnecting one side. In cold weather extra precaution 
must be observed. In the event of both sides being taken down 
in cold weather, and it becomes necessary to knock out the fire, 
proceed as per directions given in Locomotive Management , under 
the heading “Injectors Fail to Work on the Road.” 

3. Valve Rods. —In order to take down a valve rod, 
proceed as follows: Place the engine so that the main pin on 
the side to be disconnected is on the back center; open the 
cylinder cocks; make sure that the throttle is securely closed; 
take down the valve rod; place the valve in mid-position, in 
order to cover both ports; and then fasten or clamp the valve 
stem, so as to keep the valve in that position. 

To disconnect the valve rod, first take out the top rocker-pin, 
so as to disconnect the rod from the rocker. Then take out 
the valve-stem key and remove the valve rod—the rod, pin, 
and key being put together and placed out of the way on 
the tender. The valve should then be secured in its place by 


some means. 




§9 


BREAKDOWNS. 


59 


A handy device for this purpose is shown in Fig. 1. The 
holes a, a are bored so as to fit the gland 
studs, the end b is made to fit the valve-stem 
keyway, and the part c is made of such a 
length that when the clamp is fastened to 
the gland studs and the end b is in the key- 
way, the valve will be held in mid-position, covering the ports, 
as shown in Fig. 2. 

Another method of securing the valve in its place is to tie 
the valve stem to the running board, or hand rail, in such a 
way as to spring the valve stem sufficiently to insure its 
holding the valve in position. With the old style of stuffing- 
box, the valve may be held in position by simply loosening 
the nuts on one stud and tightening the nuts on the other stud 
so as to tilt, or cant, the gland and cause it to pinch the stem. 

Still another method is to cut a piece of flat iron, about 
1 inch by J- inch, and long enough so that when put between 




the valve stem and stuffingbox stud, and the stud nut is 
screwed down on it, the valve stem will be crowded against the 
side of the stuffingbox and held firmly in place. 

4. Strap-End Main Rods. —To remove the main rod, 
begin at the back end. First, take out the key and then 
remove the rod-strap bolts, and take off the oil cup to prevent 
bending the spindle. Where the cup is forged solid with the 
strap, remove the spindle if necessary. Then block, or hold 
up the main rod so that it will not drop on the guide yoke 
when pulled out of the strap. To pull it out of the strap, pry 
the crosshead toward the cylinder. The rod should be carefully 

























60 


BREAKDOWNS. 


9 


let down. The liners, brasses, bolts, and keys should all be 
put back in the strap, and placed where none of the parts will 
get lost. 

The front end of the main rod can now be removed. To do 
this in cases where the wristpin cannot be taken out, remove 
the strap bolts, after which the rod may be taken down and 
placed out of the waj^, upon the foot-board or upon the pilot. 
The strap and brasses should be taken from the wristpin, and 
the brasses, liners, and bolts placed in the strap, and the key 
driven home to hold the parts together. If the wristpin is 
removable, remove it in taking down the front end, as that will 
be much easier than removing the strap, etc. 

5. Solid-End Main Rods.— In the event of a solid-end 
rod having to be taken down, begin with the front end. Slack off 
on the key (remove it, if necessary), remove the wristpin from 
the crosshead, and carefully lower the front end of the rod. 
Then take the back end off the main pin, and place the rod in 
some safe place on the engine, where it will be as much out of 
the way as possible. The wristpin should then be put in place 
in the crosshead, its washer and nuts next, and the cotter pin 
then replaced. 

On engines where the main rod is connected to the main 
pin inside the side rod, it may be necessary to remove the 
side rod to get the back end of the main rod off the pin; 
in this case, if the side rod does not have to stay down, 
replace it again, taking care to securely fasten the nuts on the 
end of the pins to avoid further trouble. 

In case the end of the main rod on the main pin is outside the 
side rod, and there is no collar on the pin between the brasses, 
the side rod will have too much side play on the pin when the 

main rod is removed. In that event, the main- __ 

rod end can be replaced with a collar block like ^ JL ^ 
that shown in Fig. 3, provided the engineer has f ) 
been thoughtful enough to keep one on the engine 
with him. If no such clamp is at hand, cut some 8 1 P 

blocks the proper length and wire them on to the fig. 3. 
main pin. You can probably get in to clear by this means, 







§9 


BREAKDOWNS. 


61 


and a suitable clamp can then be made for the purpose. 
After taking down the main rod, the next thing to do is to 
block the crosshead. 

BLOCKING THE CROSSHEAD. 

6. Alligator Type.—If the crosshead is of the alligator 
tyP e > push it to the back end of the guides until it is even with 
the travel mark, and block it there securely to prevent its 
moving should steam leak into the cylinder. It is always a 
good plan to remove the cylinder cock from the end that the 
piston is in, or block it open to insure against an accumulation 
of pressure back of the piston. A method of blocking this 
type of crosshead is shown in Fig. 4 (a). View ( b ) shows a 
handy clamp for this purpose. If no clamp is at hand, wire 
the block in place, or use a piece of bell cord, or other cord, or 
rope, that is strong enough. The crosshead should be blocked 
at the back end of the guides, for the reason that if it should 
come loose and the piston be forced forwards through the front 
cylinder head, less damage will be done than would be the case 
if the piston were forced through the back head. On some 
engines, however, the piston must be blocked to the front end 



Fig. 4. 

of the cylinder, for the reason that the crankpin on the front 
driver will not clear the crosshead when it is at the back end 
of the guides. 

To prevent the packing ring getting into the counterbore, the 
block for blocking the crosshead should be cut to such a length 
that the crosshead will not be moved beyond its usual travel 
mark, and a wooden wedge should be driven between the back 
of the crosshead and the guide. 























62 


BREAKDOWNS. 


§9 


’J* Underhung Type. —If the engine has an underhung 
crosshead and two-bar guides, the main rod can be removed, the 
crosshead pushed to the back end of the guides, and then 



blocked in the manner shown in Fig. 5. This blocking may 
be held with clamps, as shown in the figure, or it may be 
wired or tied in place. 



8. Locomotive Type. —If the crosshead is of the loco¬ 
motive type, having four-bar guides, it can be blocked as shown 
in Fig. 6. _ 


SIDE RODS. 

9. American Standard Engine. —To take down or 
remove a side rod on an eight-wheeled, or American stand¬ 
ard, engine, it will be necessary to take off both rod straps. To 
do this, loosen the setscrews that hold the front rod keys, 
remove the key in the front end of the rod, and the front key 
in the back end of the rod, take the rod bolts out, and, if the oil 
cups are screwed on to the strap, they should be taken off to 























































§9 


BREAKDOWNS. 


63 


prevent bending the spindles. If the cups are solid on the rod, 
it may be necessary to remove the spindles instead of the cups. 
With some designs of cups, however, it is not necessary to 
remove either. While taking off the straps, the rod should be 
held in position so that it cannot fall and become damaged. 
The brasses, liners, bolts, and keys should be put back in their 
places in the straps to prevent their being lost. 

If the rods have solid ends, the nuts and washers on the 
end of the pins must be taken off, after which the rod can be 
taken down. The washers and nuts should then be put back 
in place to prevent injury to the threads on the pins. 

If the engine is so constructed that the side rods are con¬ 
nected to the main pin between the wheel and the main rod, 
the back end of the main rod may have to be taken down to get 
the side rod down. If the main rod is connected to the main 
pin next to the wheel, and there is no collar on the pin, a collar 
block, Fig. 3, will have to be used to keep the main rod in place 
on the journal of the pin. If it ever becomes necessary to take 
down a side rod on one side of an engine, its mate on the other 
side must be taken down also; for if this is not done, the 
chances are that either the rod that is left up, or its pins, will 
be bent or broken. When an engine is run with only one side 
rod up, the main driver has to drag the second driver with it 
by one side only; the second driver, therefore, lags behind the 
main driver, and as a result, the latter passes the center slightly 
in advance of the former, which throws a heavy strain on the 
rod and its pins, and both are very apt to be bent or broken. 

10. Mogul or a Ten-Wheeled Engine. —When remov¬ 
ing the rods on a mogul or a ten-wheeled engine, the main rod 
may be taken down in the same manner as that of a standard 
engine, but if the side rods are damaged so that they also 
must be removed, proceed as follows: If the damage is in the 
section having the knuckle joint, all the side rods must be 
taken down, because with the knuckle section gone, there will 
be nothing to hold the other section in position and connect it 
with the main pin. If the short section is the one damaged, 
it will only be necessary to remove that section and its mate. 




64 


BREAKDOWNS. 


§9 


11. Consolidation Engines. —When it becomes neces¬ 
sary to disconnect and take down the rods on a consolidation 
engine, the main rod may be taken down in the same manner 
as in any other design. If the engine is of the very large 
types, and the crew is unable to take down the rods and 
place them upon pilot or footboard, the rods can be left up and 
the engine run in with safety, if proper precautions are taken. 
If the rods are left up, remove the vacuum relief valves in the 
cylinder heads. Also, unscrew the caps from the indicator 
plugs (if they are provided) in the top part of the cylinder, so 
as to provide a means of getting sufficient oil into the cylinders 
to freely lubricate them. Another method is to shift the 
valve and clamp it on its seat in such a position that it will 
make a very small opening into the cylinder, and thus by 
allowing a small amount of steam to enter, prevent the piston 
from cutting the walls of the cylinder. This scheme makes 
it convenient to start the engine off the center, in case the 
engine happens to stop on one. To do this, close the cylinder 
cocks on the disabled side, and the steam will move the engine 
off the center. After the engine is moved, the cylinder cocks 
should again be removed, or blocked open. 

If an accident occurs to the side rods of a consolidation 
engine, such as a broken front, center, or back section, it will at 
least require the removal of the broken rod and its mate on the 
opposite side. The knuckle-joint pins are in the front and back 
sections, so that if the trouble is in the front section oh one side, 
only the broken rod and its mate must be removed; to do this 
the crankpin should be placed on the bottom quarter, as in this 
position the knuckle-joint pin can be taken out through the 
spokes of the wheels and the front end of the rod can be taken 
off the pin under the bottom guide. If an accident occurs to 
the center section, all side rods must be taken down and the 
engine run with main drivers only. If an accident occurs to one 
side of the back section, only the broken rod and its mate should 
be removed. The principle of disconnecting twelve-wheelers, 
decapods, etc. is the same as that of a consolidation engine. 




§9 


BREAKDOWNS. 


65 


BROKEN REVERSE-LEVER REACH ROD. 

12. In the event of a broken reverse-lever reach rod, the 
links should be raised to such a position as will enable the 
engine to handle the train conveniently, and, if the tumbling- 
shaft lever extends through the running board, the links may be 
held in position by placing a block in the slot in the running 
board on either side of the lever. If the engine is so con- 
structed that the 
tumbling-shaft lever 
does not extend up 
through the running 
board, it will be neces¬ 
sary to put a block 
in the link slot on the 
top of the link block 
that is sufficiently 
long to hold the links 
up to the desired 
height. With the 
links blocked in this 
manner, the engine 
can be run ahead at 
a fair rate of speed; 
but when it becomes 
necessary to run back¬ 
wards, the blocking 
will have to be 
changed and a longer 
block put in the link 
slot to raise the links 

to the proper height. fig. 7 . 



BROKEN LINK HANGER, SADDLE PIN, OR TUMBLING- 
SHAFT ARM. 

13. The remedy in the event of any of the above parts 
breaking will be the same in all cases, and is as follows: 
Remove all broken parts to avoid further trouble; then, by 
means of the reverse lever, drop the link on the good side far 


























66 


BREAKDOWNS. 


§9 


enough so that the engine can surely start the train; the heavier 
the train the more it should be dropped. Next, measure the 
distance between the top of the link block and the top of link 
slot and cut a block of that length that will fit into the slot of 
the link on the broken side, as represented in Fig. 7, a handy 
block clamp being shown in this figure, also. The tumbling 
shafts on most engines are so constructed that the tumbling- 
shaft arm on the disabled side will drop in behind the top of 
the link when it is forward in full gear, unless the link is 
blocked down far enough to clear it; as the top of the link 
moves back, it strikes the end of the arm, and a broken 
eccentric strap or tumbling-shaft stand results. Fig. 8 shows 
the method of doing this work. No damage will result from 
hooking the good link up, however, but the cut-off on the 
blocked-up side will remain constant, whereas the cut-off on the 
good side will be shortened. Blocked up in the manner just 
described, an engine cannot be reversed, and in the event of it 
becoming necessary to back up at any time, the block in the slot 
of the disabled link must be replaced with one long enough to 
raise the link up where it belongs for backing up. Thus it 
must be borne in mind that the engine cannot be reversed while 
running , and should not be run without a good brake to 
stop her. _ 


BROKEN TOP OR BOTTOM ROCKER-ARM. 

14. When a top rocker-arm breaks, it necessitates the 
removal of the valve rod, the broken part of the rocker-arm, 
and the main rod on that side; also, the crosshead must be 
blocked, and the valve clamped in mid-position to cover the 
steam ports. 

If the bottom rocker-arm breaks, remove the broken parts. 
If the eccentric-rod bolt in the front end of the forward-motion 
eccentric rod does not travel too close to any part of the rocker- 
arm still remaining, the link may be left up, but if there is any 
danger of its striking the broken arm, the link, eccentric rods 
and straps should be taken down to prevent further damage. 

If a transmission bar is used to transmit the motion from the 
link to the bottom rocker-arm, as on many designs of engines 























































































































































































































§9 


BREAKDOWNS. 


67 


having short eccentric and valve rods, the end connected to 
the broken rocker may be chained to the front belly brace, and 
carried that way so as to avoid loss of time in removing it. 


BROKEN FORWARD-MOTION ECCENTRIC STRAP OR ROD. 

15. Should a forward-motion eccentric strap or rod break 
on an engine having short eccentric rods, when only a short 
distance from destination, remove the broken strap and rod, 
take down the valve rod, clamp the valve in such position as to 
barely open the steam port, and leave the main rod up. Then 
take off the link hanger and allow the link to ride on the link 
block. This method can also be used on engines having trans¬ 
mission bars, if the distance to be run is not too great. How¬ 
ever, if it is very far to the destination, it is best to take down 
both the eccentric straps and rods on the disabled side, and 
proceed with as much of the train as can be handled with the 
good side of the engine. This is a case where the engine can be 
run with both main rods up if the rules of the road permit. 


BROKEN BACK-MOTION ECCENTRIC STRAP OR ROD. 

16. In the event of the back-motion eccentric strap or rod 
breaking, the engine can be run ahead with the reverse lever in 
the forward corner by taking down the broken rod and strap, 
taking care to fasten the bottom end of the link, both for¬ 
ward and back, so that it cannot swing back and forth. 
To avoid damage that might result in case the engine should 
be reversed, a block of wood should be secured in the link 
slot between the bottom of the link block and the bottom 
of the link. This block is intended to make it impossible to 
thoughtlessly reverse the engine while the back-up eccentric rod 
is missing. If it becomes necessary to run the engine back¬ 
wards while in this condition, the forward-motion eccentric 
strap and rod must be taken down and also the valve rod and 
main rod on the disabled side; then clamp the valve so as to 
cover the steam ports, and push the crosshead to the back end 
of the guides securely and block it there. The engine can then 
be run either backwards or forwards by means of the good 
side. Should this mishap occur while handling a train that 






68 


BREAKDOWNS. 


§9 

could not be moved with one side, and it became necessary 
to back the train off the main.track, the forward-motion strap 
and rod could be taken down and turned upside down so that 
the jaw on the rod could be coupled to the link and the other 
end put on the back-motion cam. If it does not fit the cam 
exactly, leave the strap loose enough to prevent binding. This 
arrangement will give the use of both sides of the engine for 
backing up. The cam can be oiled by removing the plug in the 
oil well of the strap. In most cases, this scheme can be used 
in times of emergency, with either short or long eccentric rods. 


SLIPPED ECCENTRICS. 

IT. What to Do in Case of a Slipped Eccentric. 
The question of what is best to do when an eccentric slips 
during the run is one that cannot be answered off-hand, since 
the governing conditions differ in every case, and the engineer 
must act in accordance with the prevailing conditions. A 
slipped eccentric will be indicated by the engine “going lame” 
or “out of square”; that is, the exhausts, instead of occurring 
at regular intervals, will be irregular. Now, if an engine 
should slip an eccentric far enough to make her quite lame, yet 
not far enough to prevent the usual time being made, the best 
course to pursue would be to keep the valves well oiled and get 
in on time, if possible, and report the slipped eccentric at the 
end of the run. If the eccentric should slip so far that time 
could not be made, the course to pursue would be to get on a 
siding at the first opportunity, so as to leave the main line free 
while the eccentric is being reset. On the other hand, if the 
engine should suddenly go very lame, the proper course would 
be to stop immediately, protect the train, and proceed to find 
out the cause. The trouble instead of being caused by a 
slipped eccentric may be dr^e to a broken eccentric or strap, or 
a broken valve ycke, and serious damage may result from 
attempting to run (he engine in its crippled condition. 

18. Locating a Slipped Eccentric.—If the exhaust 
suddenly goes badly out of square, proceed as follows: Imme¬ 
diately close the throttle, but do not move the reverse level 




§9 


BREAKDOWNS. 


69 


until the train has stopped. After coming to a stop, inspect 
the engine to ascertain what is wrong; feel the eccentrics to see 
if one is warmer than the others, as the warmer is probabty the 
one that has slipped. 

To locate a slipped eccentric, open the cylinder cocks, place 
the reverse lever in the forward corner, and start the train 
slowly. Watch whether steam discharges from the cylinder 
cocks on either cylinder the instant the crosshead reverses its 
motion. It should do this, and if it does not at one cylinder 
cock, the eccentric slipped will be the go-ahead eccentric on 
that side. If the valves are all right in full gear, but are out of 
square when in the usual working notch, it would indicate that 
the trouble is in a back-up eccentric. The effect of a slipped 
eccentric is to either increase or decrease the lead, depending on 
whether the eccentric slipped toward, or away from, the main 
pin. Hence, a slipped eccentric will cause steam to appear 
either too soon or too late at both cylinder cocks, while an 
eccentric rod of improper length will cause it to appear too 
early at one and too late at the other cock. 

19. Setting a Slipped Eccentric. —When the eccen¬ 
trics are in their proper positions, a mark should be made on 
the eccentrics and driving axle that will indicate their correct 
positions; then, should an eccentric slip during the run, it 
can be reset both rapidly and accurately by simply moving the 
eccentric until the marks come together again. Unfortunately, 
the marking of eccentrics is not followed generally; hence, 
enginemen are obliged to understand other quick methods that 
will enable them to set the eccentrics at least approximately 
correct in as short a time as possible. There are several quick 
methods of setting an eccentric, some of which require more 
time for the work than others, but where time is extremely 
short, the best plan is simply to guess at the proper position. 
Before going under the engine, be sure to block it securely as 
a protection against accident; then move the slipped eccentric 
until its web or spoke forms an angle with the main pin as 
nearly equal to that of the other eccentric as it is possible to 
judge. Secure the eccentric in this position and get away at 



70 


BREAKDOWNS. 


§9 


the earliest possible moment. A thorough knowledge of the 
relative positions of the eccentrics to their main pm will be of 
the greatest value in setting an eccentric by guess. 

First Method .—If unable to judge of the relative positions of 
the eccentrics, proceed as follows: Remove a setscrew from the 
eccentric; stick a lead pencil in the setscrew hole; roll the 
eccentric on the axle in the proper direction until the old mark 
where the setscrew has been is found; tighten the setscrews on 
the axle, and the eccentric is reset to the old mark. 

Second Method .—When this method is used to set a go-ahead 
eccentric, the engine on the disabled side must be placed on the 
forward dead center, with the reverse lever in the back corner. 
Then scratch a mark on the valve stem flush with the face of 
the gland, and move the reverse lever to the front corner. 
Block the engine securely, and roll the go-ahead eccentric until 
its web points toward the top quarter; then roll it toward the 
main pin until the scratch on the valve stem is again flush 
with the gland, that is, in the same position as when it was 
made, and tighten the setscrews to hold the eccentric in position. 

When the engine is on the front center and the reverse lever 
is in the back corner, the slide valve (provided the back-up 
eccentric is properly placed) is in the proper position to give 
the required lead; the valve stem is marked to indicate this 
position. If the go-ahead eccentric is properly placed on the 
axle, moving the reverse lever from the back to the front corner 
will not disturb the valve, but if it is not in its proper position, 
it will move the valve. Suppose it is not properly located: 
In that event it is first rolled away from, and then toward, 
the main pin (to take the slack in the right direction) until the 
scratch on the valve stem is flush with the gland again, in 
which position, of course, the valve must be properly placed 
to give the required lead. 

Third Method.—To reset a go-ahead eccentric, place the dis¬ 
abled side of the engine on the back center, place the reverse 
lever in the front corner, open the cylinder cocks, and block 
the engine securely. Go under the engine and roll the eccen¬ 
tric on the axle until its web points toward the bottom 
quarter, then have the fireman carefully open the throttle a 





§9 


BREAKDOWNS. 


71 


small amount. Slowly roll the eccentric toward the main pin 
until steam shows at the back-cylinder cock, when the setscrews 
should be tightened. This will give the valve a small amount 
of lead in forward motion. 

To prove whether the eccentric is properly placed, open the 
cylinder cocks and the throttle—the latter slightly; then move 
the reverse lever from the front to the back corner and back 
again, and note the discharge of steam from the back-cylinder 
cock for each position of the lever. When in backward 
motion, the back-up eccentric gives the valve its lead; when in 
forward motion, the go-ahead eccentric gives the valve its lead. 
The lead will be the same in both motions if the eccentrics are 
correctly set; if, however, one of the eccentrics has slipped, or 
is not correctly placed on the axle, the lead will be unequal in 
the two motions, and the discharge of steam from the back- 
cylinder cock will be unequal also. If, then, the discharge 
from the back cock is the same for both positions of the lever, 
the eccentric is correctly placed. If the discharge is heavier 
when the lever is in the forward corner, the valve has too much 
lead in forward motion, and the go-ahead eccentric must be 
rolled slightly away from the main pin to reduce .the lead and 
equalize the discharge. If it is heavier when the reverse lever 
is in the back corner, it indicates that the valve has too little 
lead in forward motion, and the eccentric must be rolled slightly 
toward the main pin to increase it. 

To set the back-up eccentric—when it can be set without 
taking the go-ahead eccentric down—place the engine on the 
front center with the reverse lever in the front corner. Begin 
with the back-up eccentric web pointing toward the bottom 
quarter, and roll the eccentric toward the main pin until steam 
escapes from the front cylinder cock, when the eccentric should 
be secured to the axle. 

An easy and fairly accurate method of quickly determining 
when an engine is on the dead center, for use in cases of slipped 
eccentrics, is as follows: Find the travel marks, as described 
in Steam , Cylinders , and Valve Gears, Part 2, and then move the 
engine until the end of the crosshead corresponding to the center 
desired is in line with its travel mark. 



72 


BREAKDOWNS. 


9 


The foregoing methods apply to D valves, whether balanced 
or not, operated by an indirect motion that uses a rocker-shaft. 
In the case of a direct-motion engine with a D valve, or a piston 
valve having outside admission, the position of the eccentrics 
with relation to the crankpin will be directly opposite, as has 
been mentioned heretofore. The position of eccentrics moving 
a piston valve having inside admission is directly opposite that 
of the eccentrics of a D valve having outside admission. 


BROKEN VALVE YOKE. 

20. A broken valve yoke will be indicated by the engine 
going seriously lame, and if necessary to stop to ascertain 
the cause it should be done by means of the brakes. Never 
reverse the engine to help stop the train in the event of the 
engine suddenly going lame. As soon as the train comes to 



Fig. 9. 


a standstill, try to locate the trouble as follows: Beginning 
on, say, the right side, place the right main pin on the quarter; 
open the cylinder cocks; admit a little steam into the cylinders; 
and then move the reverse lever from one corner to the other. 
If steam does not show at the same point of cut-off in both 
back and forward motion, the trouble is on that side, but if 
steam shows at the same point of cut-off, the trouble is probably 
on the left side. To make sure that the trouble is on the left 
side of the engine, place the left main pin on the quarter and 
proceed according to above directions for the right side of the 
engine. When the trouble has been located, proceed as follows: 


























































§9 


BREAKDOWNS. 


73 


Take down the main rod on that side and block the crosshead; 
remove the steam-chest cover; disconnect the valve rod, and 
place the valve so as to cover both admission ports to the 
cylinder, as shown in Fig. 9; and fit blocks between the front and 
back sides of the valve and the steam chest, so that the blocks 
will hold the valve in place. Then replace the steam-chest cover. 

If the valve stem is broken so that it will come out through 
the gland, a wooden plug must be driven into the valve-stem 
opening from the inside of the steam chest. 

Another method is to simply clamp the valve ahead in a posi¬ 
tion to admit steam to the back end of the cylinder, and securely 
block the crosshead at the front end of the guides. 

Still another method, where the relief valve is in the front end 
of the steam chest, is to fit in the relief valve a plug of wood that 
is long enough to hold the valve exactly over the ports. This 
will hold the valve from coming forward. It can be held from 
going backwards by the valve stem, which should be clamped 
in position in the usual manner. 

21. If the cylinders are so constructed that the steam pipes 
are connected to the side of the steam chest, slack up on the 
nuts of the steam-chest studs and then remove the joint at the 
connection and insert a piece of 1-inch board, sheathed with a 
piece of sheet metal on the steam-pipe side to prevent the steam 
blowing a hole through the board. A piece of an old scoop 
will serve this purpose nicely. Tighten the bolts securely to 
insure a tight joint. It will not be necessary to remove the 
main rod on large engines where the rod is very heavy and 
there is not sufficient help present to take it down, if the 
cylinders are provided with pressure-relief valves, such as are 
used in the cylinder heads of many makes of large engines. 
The compression produced in the cylinder by the piston can be 
relieved through the opening made by removing the relief 
valves in the cylinder heads. 

In the event of the steam pipes not being connected to the 
side of the steam chest, as stated above, other means must be 
adopted to prevent steam from entering the steam chest. This 
may be accomplished by removing the steam-chest cover and 





74 


BREAKDOWNS. 


§9 


fitting blocks of wood over the admission ports to the steam 
chest, as shown in Fig. 10. 

The blocks for the front port may all be made of one length. 
One of the back blocks, however, must be made of two pieces, 
or else be notched out so that it will allow for the valve stem, 
and thus avoid removing the stem. 

Referring to Fig. 10, it will be observed that blocks are fitted 
over the steam-chest admission ports, and sufficient blocks are 
used to enable the balance plate attached to the steam-chest 



cover to hold the blocking in place when the cover is drawn 
down tightly on the blocks by the steam-chest bolts. By 
drawing the cover down tight enough, steam-tight joints can 
be made at the ports x and y, and steam will be excluded from 
the steam chest. This method of blocking can also be used in 
the event of a broken valve stem or valve. 


BROKEN VALVE-STEM STUFFING BOX GLAND. 

22. In the event of the breaking of a valve-stem stuffing- 
box gland, the packing, and probably the back bushing also, 
will blow out with the broken gland. A great loss of steam 
will thus occur through the large opening around the valve 
stem, which will affect the working of the engine to a greater or 
less extent, besides being very wasteful. To prevent this waste 
of steam and to temporarily repair the mishap in order to get to 
destination, the back bushing should be replaced and the stuf- 
fingbox repacked with fresh packing; then, if there is enough of 





































9 


BREAKDOWNS. 


75 


the gland left to keep the packing in the stuffingbox, it should 
be set against the packing and held there. This may be done by 
means of two pieces of sheet metal cut as shown in Fig. 11 (a). 
One piece a fits over the valve stem and stuffingbox studs from 
above, and the other piece b is slipped up from below. The two 
pieces are then held against the end of the broken gland by 
means of the stuffingbox nuts, as shown in view (6), a nut being 



placed on either side of the pieces of sheet metal and the nuts 
tightened up hard. The sheet-metal pieces can be cut out of an 
old scoop shovel or out of any other piece of sheet iron that 
may be at hand. 


BROKEN VALVE SEAT. 

23. In the event of the valve or valve seat breaking, it often 
happens that the piece broken off causes considerable additional 
damage. This piece may become wedged in one of the steam 
ports in such a way that the valve will strike it and bend or 
break the valve stem, valve rod, eccentric rod, or rocker-arm, or 
else slip an eccentric; or, the piece may find its way into the 
cylinder and there do considerable damage. A broken valve or 
valve seat will be indicated by the irregular action of the 
exhaust. The bridge is the part of the valve seat that usually 
breaks; so to test for a broken valve bridge, proceed as follows: 

Beginning on, say, the right side of the engine, place the 
right main pin on the top quarter, move the reverse lever to the 
forward corner, apply the driver brakes or block the drivers, and 
then open the throttle slightly. With the parts thus arranged, 

































76 


BREAKDOWNS, 


§9 


Fig. 12, the steam port to the back end of the cylinder will be 
open to the steam chest, while the port to the front end of the 
cylinder will be connected by the valve to the exhaust cavity. 
Should the back bridge be broken, steam will be discharged 
through the break into the exhaust passage, and a violent blow 
will occur. This blow will cease w T hen the reverse lever is moved, 
to the back corner, however, if the front bridge is not broken 
also, for then steam will be shut out of the back steam passage. 
If no blow occurs with the lever in the front corner, move it to 
the back corner, and if a blow then occurs, the front bridge is 
probably broken. If so, the blow should cease when the reverse 
lever is moved to the front corner, provided the back bridge is 
not broken also. If no blow occurs with the reverse lever in 
this position* move the engine so that the left main pin is on the 



quarter, and test the left side in the same manner as the right 
side. Having located the trouble, disconnect the valve stem and 
clamp the valve on the center of its seat so as to cover both 
steam passages to the cylinder. Then take down the main rod, 
block the crosshead securely and proceed with one side. 

In the event of the outer wall s, Fig. 13, of one of the steam 
passages breaking, it will be impossible to keep steam out of 
that end of the cylinder, and, consequently, there will be a 
constant blow from the corresponding cylinder cock, regardless 
of the position of the valve. Also, there will be a violent blow 
every time the valve is moved so as to connect the exhaust 
cavity with the steam passage whose wall is broken. 

When an accident of this nature occurs, disconnect the valve 
rod, move the valve until it connects the uninjured steam 






















Ho. IB. 

















































































































































































78 


BREAKDOWNS. 


§9 


passage with the exhaust passage, as shown in the figure, and 
then clamp it in that position. Disconnect the main rod, move 
the piston to the end of the cylinder opposite the broken port, 
block it there securely, and then remove the cylinder cock from 
that end of the cylinder to prevent pressure accumulating 
behind the piston. The broken port, of course, will allow 
its end of the cylinder to fill with steam, but no harm can 
result. 

A very convenient form of valve clamp is illustrated in the 
figure. The clamp is shown in position clamped to the valve 
rod, and, also, a front view is given. 


BROKEN FALSE VALVE SEAT. 

24. If a false valve seat is badly broken, so that steam 
blows through into the exhaust port, it will be necessary to 
make a tight joint over the steam and exhaust ports. If the 
pieces cannot be fitted together steam tight, take the false seat 
all out. In many cases the valve can be dropped down and so 
made to cover the ports, otherwise a board must be used, in 
which case the valve will have to be taken out, and it may be 
left out. Hold the board down by a block of wood between it 
and the steam-chest cover. The steam pressure usually does 
this, the block simply being used to hold the board in position 
while the engine is running shut off. Some false seats are 
fastened down with tap bolts going into the top of the cylinder, 
in which case the false seat cannot be taken out, but must be 
covered so that steam cannot get by it. With a balanced valve, 
a board must be used, otherwise steam will blow through the 
exhaust cavity and out of the exhaust. 


BROKEN VALVE. 

25. A broken valve will be indicated by a constant blow 
at the exhaust, the amount of the blow depending on the size 
of the break. To test for a broken valve, proceed as follows: 
First note on which side of the engine steam blows from both 
cylinder cocks when the reverse lever is moved back and forth 







§9 


BREAKDOWNS. 


79 


with the throttle slightly open. If you do not locate the valve at 
once, then begin on the right side of the engine, place the valve 
on that side in mid-position, so that it will cover both steam 
ports; then open the cylinder cocks and open the throttle a 
small amount. If no blow occurs when the throttle is open, the 
valve on that side is all right; however, if a blow does occur 
when the throttle is open and at the same time steam escapes 
from one of the cylinder cocks, the indications are that the 
valve is broken, for the reason that a broken valve will allow 
steam to escape to the exhaust and to one of the steam ports, 
as indicated in Fig. 14. To test still further for the broken 



Fig. 14. 


valve, move the valve far enough toward the end of the cylinder 
that shows no steam at the cylinder cock to connect the steam 
port to that end of the cylinder with the exhaust, and if steam 
then appears at both cylinder cocks at the same time, and 
there also is a blow at the exhaust, it will be an additional 
indication of a broken valve. In this case the steam passes 
into the exhaust cavity, and thence finds its way through the 
steam passages into the other end of the cylinder. 


BROKEN STEAM CHEST. 

26. In the event of the steam-chest walls cracking in such a 
way as to necessitate repairs, it will be found that the break can 
often be forced together so as to make a nearly steam-tight 
joint by simply driving suitable wedges between the steam- 
chest studs and the walls of the chest, at the corners opposite 
the break, as shown in Fig. 15. Of course, in order to do this, 
























80 


BREAKDOWNS. 


9 


the steam-chest casing and 


n 


U 


lagging must be removed, and 
the nuts on the studs must be 
slacked off. Iron wedges are the 
best to use, although good hard¬ 
wood wedges will prove very 
effective. Iron wedges may be 
hammered out of big spikes, 
bolts, etc. that may be at hand. 
After the crack has been wedged 
together, tighten the nuts on 
the steam-chest studs, put the 
casing and lagging on the tender, 
and connect up the oil pipe 
and proceed. 

If the break is so bad that 
it cannot be wedged together, 
disconnect the valve rod, remove 
the steam-chest cover, and block 
steam out of the steam chest by 
fitting blocks over the steam- 
chest admission ports, as already 
explained. Then replace the 
steam-chest cover and proceed. 
This is a case when the engine can be run with the main rod 
up, if the rules of the road permit. 



Fig. 15. 















































































§9 


BREAKDOWNS. 


81 


If the steam chest is entirely demolished, but some of the 
studs are left, try to block the steam ports as shown in Fig. 16, 
using fish plates or anything else at hand that will serve the 
purpose. 

In case so many studs are broken that the steam-inlet ports 
cannot be blocked as shown in Fig. 16, it will be necessary to 
make a blind joint in the steam pipe inside the smoke arch. 
As this is an operation requiring considerable time, it may be 
better to have the engine towed to a shop where the steam chest 
can be repaired. Should this be impracticable, loosen the 
steam-pipe joint, put, in a thin piece of sheet iron—part of an 
old scoop shovel will do—that will keep the steam out of the 
broken steam chest. 


BROKEN PISTON STUFFING BOX STUD AND LUG OE GLAND. 

27. In the event of a stud or a lug of the gland breaking 
on an old style stuffingbox, partly refill the stuffingbox so 
that the gland will enter far enough to hold it square and 
prevent its tipping sufficiently to pinch the valve stem when 
held in place by the remaining stud and lug. If both lugs or 
studs are gone, wrap the outside of the gland with cloth and 
then drive the gland in place. A piece of scantling can be 
used, reaching from the running-board bracket against the 
gland. This may hold the gland in position. If it will not, 
or if the gland is broken so that it cannot be used at all, 
then proceed with the train as it is. Do not disconnect for a 
failure of piston-rod packing. It will cause a waste of steam, to 
be sure, but the train can be brought in all right without 
wasting time disconnecting. 


BENT PISTON ROD. 

28. In the case of a bent piston rod, disconnect the 
valve rod and clamp the valve at mid-travel, take down 
the main rod and block the crosshead securely, remove the 
cylinder cock behind the piston, and then proceed with one 
side of the engine. 

Another method, if the crosshead, guides, etc. are not 





82 


BREAKDOWNS. 


§9 


damaged and the piston rod can be easily disconnected from the 
crosshead, is to take off the front cylinder head, remove the 
piston and piston rod, disconnect the valve rod, and clamp 
the valve in mid-position, allowing the crosshead to carry the 
front end of the main rod. In this event, the guides must be 
kept well lubricated. 

BROKEN PISTON ROD. 

29. When a piston rod breaks, it almost invariably causes 
the front cylinder head to be knocked out; it generally breaks 
close to the piston, and, in this event, if the crosshead is not 
damaged or the piston rod bent, all that it is necessary to do is 
to disconnect the valve rod and clamp the valve in mid-position, 
so as to cover both steam ports to the cylinder. The main rod 
can be left up, because the crosshead will carry its front end, 
and the stuffingbox will carry the front end of the piston rod, 
but the rod swab should be kept oiled. If the rod breaks 
at the crosshead, but does not injure the crosshead, discon¬ 
nect the valve rod and clamp the valve in mid-travel so as to 
cover the steam ports. In this case, also, the main rod can be 
left up. In the event of the crosshead being so damaged as to 
be unserviceable, it will then be necessary to disconnect the main 
rod and to block or secure the crosshead, to keep it stationary 


BROKEN CYLINDER HEAD. 

30. If the front cylinder head should be broken, disconnect 
the valve rod and clamp the valve centrally on its seat, so as to 
cover the steam ports, take down the main rod, block the cross- 
head securely, and remove the cylinder cock. Proceed by 
using the other side of the engine. The method of blocking 
just described can be used to advantage on the ordinary engines 
now in service, but if the front cylinder head of one of the 
very large engines in service on mountain grades on many 
railroads should be knocked out, and no other damage done, it 
would be policy to proceed as follows: Disconnect the valve rod 
and clamp the valve centrally on its seat; remove all the broken 
parts; remove the relief valve and cylinder cock from that 






§9 


BREAKDOWNS. 


83 


cylinder; and allow the main rod to remain up and the piston to 
travel back and forth in the cylinder. The main rods on such 
engines, it must be remembered, are very heavy to handle with 
the help that can be had, so that the best way is not to attempt 
to take them down, if it can be avoided. When the piston is 
allowed to travel in the cylinder, as described, it should be well 
lubricated to prevent the packing rings or the piston cutting the 
walls of the cylinder. 

If time is of much importance and it is desired to clear the 
main line, all that it is necessary to do is to simply clear away 
the broken parts, without disconnecting anything (the other 
parts being uninjured), and proceed. The steam that is 
admitted to the front end of the cylinder will be wasted, of 
course, but the main line can be quickly cleared, which is a 
very important matter. In the event of the back cylinder head 
breaking, the rods on that side must be taken down, the cross¬ 
head blocked, and the valve clamped centrally on its seat. 


BROKEN STEAM CHEST AND CYLINDER. 

31. When a bad accident occurs to the steam chest and 
cylinder, the valve rod and the main rod on the disabled 
side should be removed and the crosshead blocked. Then 
loosen the steam-pipe joint on the disabled side and put a piece 
of sheet metal between the flat surfaces of the joint and the 
steam pipe, thus closing the opening in the steam pipe and 
preventing the steam from being wasted through the defective 
steam chest. 


BROKEN MAIN CRANKPIN. 

32. Whenever the main crankpin breaks, remove all side 
rods and the main rod on the disabled side. On some types of 
large consolidation engines, however, having very heavy main 
rods, the front end of the main rod may be left up, if the guide 
yoke is so constructed that the rod runs through it. In that 
event, only the back end should be disconnected, the crosshead 
being pushed all the way ahead and securely blocked there, 
allowing the back end of the main rod to ride on the guide 





Fig. 17. 


BREAKDOWNS. 


§9 


yoke, as shown in Fig. 17. In both of 
the above cases, however, disconnect the 
valve rod, cover the ports, and clamp the 
valve stem to hold the valve in that 
position. 


BROKEN BACK-END MAIN-ROD STRAP. 

33. When the strap at the back end 
of the main rod breaks, the piston usually 
goes through the front cylinder head, 
and very often the piston-rod packing 
gland is broken by being struck by the 
crosshead. Sometimes the crosshead 
strikes the front guide blocks hard enough 
to seriously damage the guides and the 
back cylinder head, or, the piston-rod 
key may be sheared off by the shock, in 
which event the piston is sure to go 
through the cylinder head. The cross¬ 
head is also liable to be broken, but will 
usually stand a harder knock than the 
parts already referred to. In disconnect¬ 
ing, take down the valve rod, place the 
valve centrally on its seat, and clamp 
the valve stem; then disconnect the main 
rod and block the crosshead. 


BROKEN FRONT-END MAIN-ROD STRAP. 

34. When the front-end main-rod 
strap breaks, the effect is about the same 
as w r hen a back-end strap breaks. In 
disconnecting, it is always necessary to 
take down the main rod on the disabled 
side, disconnect the valve stem, and, 
covering the steam ports with the valve, 
clamp it there; then block the cross¬ 
head securely. 



















§9 BREAKDOWNS. 85 


BROKEN GUIDE. 

35. When a guide breaks, it usually means that whichever 
side of the engine the broken guide is on will have to be dis^ 
connected. Engines having four-bar guides can be run ahead 
with one of the bottom guides broken or gone, but it is not safe 
to back up with the guide in this condition. When an engine 
is working steam ahead, the crosshead is always held up 
against the top guides; but when it is worked backwards, the 
crosshead bears on the bottom guides. If the engine having a 
bottom guide broken is run backwards, there is great danger of 
bending the piston rod. 

To disconnect for a broken guide, disconnect the valve rod, 
place the valve in a position to cover the ports and fasten it 
there, take down the main rod and block the crosshead. Remove 
or block open the cylinder cock back of the piston, as in 
other cases. 


BROKEN CROSSHEAD. 

36. In the event of a broken crosshead, the main rod should 
be removed, and if the crosshead is not totally destroyed, and 
there is enough left to block, the remaining part should be pushed 
to the back end of the guides and securely blocked there. Then 
disconnect the valve rod, cover the ports with the valve, and 
clamp the valve stem to hold the valve in position. If the 
crosshead is broken so that it cannot be blocked to prevent 
the piston moving, the piston should be moved to the back end 
of the cylinder and the valve should be clamped on its seat in 
such a position as to admit steam into the head end of the 
cylinder to keep the piston from moving. Take out the back 
cylinder cock so as to prevent any steam pressure accumulating 
between the piston and back cylinder head. 


BROKEN REVERSE LEVER. 

37. If the reverse lever should break, the engineer loses 
all control of the reversing apparatus, and the train must be 
handled entirely by means of the throttle and the brake. 
When this accident occurs, the weight of the links and eccen¬ 
tric rods causes the links to drop into the forward motion, 





86 


BREAKDOWNS. 


§9 


so that if it is desired to run backwards, the links must be 
raised to the proper position. If the reversing arm of the 
tumbling shaft extends through the running board, as in many 
makes of engines, it can be blocked in the proper position 
by fitting a small block in the slot of the running board on each 
side of the tumbling-shaft lever, to hold it in position. If the 
lever does not extend through the running board, the reach rod 
should be disconnected, if necessary, and a block fitted into 
the link slot of the proper length to hold up the link the 
desired height. 

If it is desired to run the engine forwards, the links should 
be raised to the proper height for handling the train to the best 
advantage, and a block fitted into the slot of one of the links 
above the link block. Do not block both links; block only one, 
and the best results will be obtained. This method of blocking 
may be used in case the reverse-lever, reach rod or its lift-shaft 
arm is broken. 

Another way of holding up the link is to put a bar across the 
top of the frames under the tumbling-shaft arms, then secure 
the bar to the frames, and the tumbling-shaft arms to the bar 
with bell cord or a chain. This method can be used to 
advantage on some makes of engines and will save time. 


THROTTLE DISCONNECTED AND OPEN. 

38. Whenever an accident occurs to the throttle or its 
attachments that prevents it from closing, it produces a very 
dangerous state of affairs and one that requires prompt action 
on the part of the engineer and fireman. The steam pressure 
in the boiler must be reduced as soon as possible, so that the 
engine can be handled by means of the reverse lever and 
the brake. The reverse lever should be moved to the center 
of the quadrant and the brakes applied to stop the train, or 
at least to get it under perfect control; then the injector should 
be put on, and the safety valves, steam-heat valve, or any other 
valves on the engine that will assist in reducing the steam 
pressure in the boiler, should be opened. The fireman should 
close the ash-pan dampers, open the fire-door, and, if necessary, 






§9 


BREAKDOWNS. 


87 

knock a hole in the fire to assist in reducing the boiler pressure 
to a point that will permit of the reverse lever being handled by 
the engineer—say, 100 pounds, or even less. Notify the train 
crew of the condition of the engine so they may render 
assistance in handling the train if necessary. The lubricator 
should be adjusted to feed the valves liberally so as to 
make them handle easily, and the engine and train should 
be taken, by means of the reverse lever and the brake, to the 
nearest point where the engine can be exchanged for another 
one, or where it can be prepared to be towed in. Make 
all stops by placing the reverse lever in the center notch 
and then applying the brake. 


THROTTLE DISCONNECTED AND CLOSED. 

39. In the event of any part of the throttle valve gear 
breaking or giving out, the pressure of the steam on the upper 
face of the valve will usually close the valve, and it cannot be 
opened again until the dome cap has been removed and the 
trouble repaired. A disconnected throttle may be caused by 
any of the bolts or pins of the bell-crank breaking or 
working out; by the breaking of the lug on the throttle stand 
pipe to which the bell-crank is pivoted; or to the throttle rod, 
throttle stem, or throttle link, breaking. 

Whether the dome cap should be removed and the throttle 
connected up will depend on conditions. If the road is a busy 
one and traffic will be seriously delayed, probably the best plan 
will be to protect the train, send for help, and disconnect, so as 
to be ready to be towed in. It should be remembered that 
towing an engine with the throttle disconnected and closed and 
steam up and lubricator in working order, is similar to drifting 
down a long hill; therefore, unless the rules of the road demand 
that an engine in this condition be disconnected, it is not 
necessary. If conditions will permit, however, of the other 
course being pursued, proceed as follows: Knock out the fire, 
or bank it deeply with fresh wet coal, relieve the boiler of all 
pressure, remove the dome cap, and connect the disconnected 
parts if it can be done. Then replace the dome cap and fire 




88 


BREAKDOWNS. 


§9 


up again. If repairs cannot be made, remove the valve 
entirely and try to get in, as in the case of a throttle dis¬ 
connected and open. Before relieving the boiler of pressure, 
care should be taken that there is sufficient water in the boiler 
with which to fire up again when repairs are made, and it is well 
to fill the boiler well up before attempting to relieve the pressure. 


HOLE KNOCKED IN BOILER. 

40. It is very seldom that a hole is knocked in a boiler. 
Sometimes, however, when an eccentric rod or strap breaks on 
engines that have the main driving axle close to the firebox, the 
broken parts get between the eccentric and the boiler and 
punch a hole through the sheet. When, from any cause, a hole 
is knocked into a boiler, the engine not only becomes useless 
at once, but it is also in great danger of more serious damage, 
and prompt measures must be adopted to protect it. A large 
hole in the outer shell will soon let the water out of the boiler, 
and great care must be taken to protect the firebox sheets so 
that they will not become overheated. If the grates are such 
that the fire can be dumped, do so without loss of time; but 
if the fire cannot be dumped, smother it with fresh wet coal as 
quickly as possible, afterwards killing it with water, first closing 
the ash-pan dampers. 

41. Extra Precautions for Cold Weather.— In cold 
weather the tank, the lubricators, and all pipes must be 
drained so as to prevent damage from frost. If the engine has 
only a short distance to be towed in, it will not be necessary to 
disconnect, provided the cylinders and steam passages are 
drained, and the cylinders and valves can be kept oiled. 
This can easily be accomplished by putting oil in at the relief- 
valve openings occasionally while the engine is moving. A 
little graphite introduced through the release valve openings 
every few miles will assist very materially in lubricating the 
cylinders and valves. It is a good plan to take out the relief 
valves, as the air is thus given a better chance to flow into the 
steam chests, thereby greatly reducing the vacuum that is 
formed. On large compound engines of the Richmond type, 





BREAKDOWNS. 


89 


§9 

which have overpass valves on the low-pressure side, remove 
the caps from the £nds of the overpass valve chamber and take 
out the valves; then the air can flow freely in and out of the 
cylinder through this channel. If this is not done, the cylinder 
may be heated considerably by the air being churned back and 
forth from one end of the cylinder to the other. 


POP-VALVE OR WHISTLE BLOWN OUT OR BROKEN OFF 
CLOSE TO HOME. 

42. Should the pop-valve or whistle be blown out, or 
broken off close to the dome, immediately start the injectors 
and keep them working as long as possible; close the ash-pan 
dampers, and watch the water glass closely; if there is danger 
of the water getting too low, bank the fire, or dump it, so as to 
protect the crown sheet. When the boiler has been relieved of 
all pressure, plug the opening made by the blown-out valve or 
whistle so as to make it steam-tight. To do this, take a piece 
of dry wood (the dryer the better) and make a plug about a 
foot long and slightly larger than the opening into which it is 
to fit. Taper the plug slightly for about 6 or 7 inches, and thcr. 
drive it into the opening, so that only about 1 inch projects 
beyond the outside of the dome cap. Then drive several naifs 
into the plug. The nails will spread the wood and force it into 
the threads of the dome cap and also will cause the wood to 
form a sort of shoulder inside the cap that will resist the plug’s 
removal. Besides which, the moisture inside the boiler will 
cause the wood to swell and thus make its removal still more 
difficult. A better way is to split this plug in four pieces, tie a 
string to each piece, and let them separately through the hole; 
when drawn up into the hole and placed together as before 
being split, the larger end of the plug will be inside the dome, 
and the plug cannot blow out. After plugging the opening,, 
ascertain whether there is sufficient water in the boiler to 
protect the parts, and if so, fire up and proceed. 

Another way to handle an accident of this nature is to drive 
a wooden plug into the hole and secure it there by means of a 
lever laid across the plug and tied down, at both ends, to the 
hand rails or some other parts of the engine. 




90 


BREAKDOWNS. 


§9 


BLOW-OFF COCK BLOWN OUT OR BROKEN. 

43. Whenever the blow-off cock is blown out o; broken, 
there is not much time in which to think of what should be 
done. One should know beforehand what to do, and then do 
it quickly when the time for action arrives. The injectors must 
be started immediately, and the fire knocked out as quickly as 
possible, if the engine is fitted with dumping grates; if not, 
close the ash-pan dampers and bank the fire with fresh wet coal. 
This must be done to protect the firebox sheets, as the boiler 
will quickly be emptied of water. The proper authorities 
should then be notified, and the engine made ready to be 
towed in. 

If it is desired to fix up the engine so as to bring her in under 
her own steam, and the blow-off cock is broken off in such a 
way that it cannot be used again, the hole can be stopped with 
a wooden plug as follows: Cut a wooden plug that will snugly 
fit the hole; then split the end of the plug that is to enter the 
hole, make a wedge the width of the diameter of the hole and 
long enough to rest against the inside sheet, then place the end 
of the wedge into the split end of the plug and put the wedge 
against the inside sheet, so that when the plug is driven in, the 
wedge will spread the inside end of the plug in such a way as 
to cause it to resist being forced out of the hole. In many 
cases a washout plug will fit this opening, and if a spare one is 
on the engine, it should be used. The boiler may then be 
filled and fired up and run to the shop under low pressure. 


BROKEN OR BURNED-OFF GRATE BARS. 

44. To avoid delaying the train when the grate bars are 
broken or burned off, close the hole by building up from the 
^bottom of ash-pan with old fish-plates, coupling links, or flat 
stones. In the event of a deep hopper-shaped ash-pan being 
used, pull the fire back from the burned section of the bars and 
close the hole by throwing some fish-plates in the firebox and 
working them crosswise over the hole with the fire-tools; then 
cover this over with fire and proceed. If the fire has to be 
cleaned again before the terminal is reached, care must be taken 





§9 


BREAKDOWNS. 


91 


not to disturb the plates over the hole. If the engine is an 
anthracite-coal burner, the hole can be stopped by throwing 
large lumps of “ boney ” coal over the hole and covering them 
with live fire. By means of this scheme, the hole can very 
often be stopped effectually from one fire cleaning to another. 
On arriving at the terminal, however, the grate should be 
reported so that repairs can be made. 


BROKEN FRAME. 

45. Whether an engine will have to be disconnected or 
not, in case its frame should be broken, will depend on the loca¬ 
tion of the fracture. If only the pedestal jaw of the frame 
breaks, it is hardly ever necessary to do anything, and the train 
may be taken to its destination without disconnecting. A break 
of this kind is often repaired in the shop by merely fitting and 
bolting a heavy iron plate over the fracture. If the frame 
breaks between the main driving box and the cylinder, or if the 
top rail breaks at any point, that side of the engine must be 
disconnected, and the engine should be run in light under her 
own steam. It is a mistake to try to handle part of the train 
under such conditions, for the reason that every time steam is 
admitted into the back end of the cylinder on the opposite 
side, it causes the break to open up. The frame on the 
unbroken side is, therefore, subjected to a springing strain that 
may lead to the breaking of that frame also. When the 
pedestal brace or bolt on the the main box is broken, remove 
the corresponding part from the back jaw and replace the 
broken one with it. This takes a good part from a jaw where 
the strain is less, and makes the main pedestal solid again. 
In the case of a bottom rail breaking, it is not necessary to give 
up the train or disconnect the engine. If the key that holds 
the cylinders fast in the frame works out, it should be replaced 
at once; if this cannot be done, disconnect as for a broken 
frame. Another thing to keep in mind, if the engine is to be 
towed, is that when an engine is in a train and is being towed, 
the frames have to stand the strain of pulling whatever is back 
of the engine; if the frame is broken, this strain may result in 




92 


BREAKDOWNS. 


§9 


serious damage being done. An engine with a broken frame 
should not be towed in a long train if it can be avoided, 
because if the broken engine is placed near the head end of the 
train, there is too much weight behind it; if placed near the 
rear end, the shocks caused in starting the train are liable to 
cause further damage. 

BROKEN WEDGE BOLT. 

46. If a wedge bolt happens to break below the nut that 
is above the pedestal brace, the bottom end of the bolt, in most 
cases, will drop out and be lost, and the wedge will soon work 
down and allow the box to pound in the jaws. About the only 
thing to do under such conditions is to pry up the wedge to its 
proper place and tighten the nut on the bolt that goes through 
the jaw. Then screw the wedge-bolt nut down on the binder 
and drive a hardwood wedge between the nut and the pedestal 
in such a manner that it will keep the nut from turning. This 
will usually keep up the wedge, and engines have been run for 
weeks with wedges held in this way. 

Should the wedge bolt break between the upper nut and the 
lower end of the wedge, splice the bolt by screwing the upper 
nut until one-half of it is on either side of the break; then put 
a washer one-half the thickness of the nut between the nut and 
the pedestal brace to hold the wedge in its usual position. 
When the wedge bolt is broken in such a way that no use can 
be made of it, a nut can often be found that will fill the space 
nicely between the wedge and binder, and that can be kept in 
place by means of a piece of wire fastened to the pedestal. If 
the wedge bolt breaks and the wedge sticks up, it can usually 
be brought down by running the wheel that is just forward or 
back of it over something (a large nut, for instance) that will 
raise it off the rail a short distance. 

BROKEN DRIVING BOX OR BRASS. 

47. An engine may sometimes be run for a considerable 
distance with one or more of the driving boxes broken, and no 
bad results follow, although it is poor policy to run one under 
such conditions unless in emergencies or in a case of necessity. 





9 


BREAKDOWNS. 


93 


Driving boxes usually break near the lower edge of the brass or 
between the brass and the cellar, and in case only one side 
breaks, the cellar and cellar bolts will hold the detached part of 
the box in nearly its proper position. This will cause the box 
to pound, and, if it is allowed to run in this condition any 
length of time, the other side of the box is liable to break in 
the same way. As long as the unbroken part of the box extends 
down as low as, or a little lower than, the bottom edges of the 
brass, there is very little danger of any harm being done, and 
it is safe to handle a full train. 

If the brass itself breaks, the engine may be run to the end 
of the trip without much injury, provided the broken parts 
remain in position; but in nine cases out of ten the journal will 
run hot and the weight will have to be taken off the box. This 
can be done, where overhung springs are used, by running the 
wheel on a wedge and fitting a block of wood between the under 
side of the spring saddle and the frame. When the wheel is 
run off the wedge, the block will keep the spring saddle from 
resting on the box. Where an underhung-spring gear is used, 
run the wheel having the broken box up on a wedge, chain up 
the ends of the springs, or equalizers, nearest the box, or block 
down the far ends of the equalizers, and when the wheel is run 
down off the wedge, the weight of the engine will be carried by 
the other boxes. 

If a main driving box should break on a ten-wheeler, and let 
the brass drop into the cellar, the best thing to do will be to 
take both the weight of the engine and the weight of the box 
off this journal. If this accident occurs some distance from the 
terminal, about the best thing to do is to swing or carry that 
wheel. To do this, run the wheel up on a thick wedge and 
block between the top of the frame and the spring saddle, or 
chain up the ends of the equalizers, as the case may be, so that 
when the wheel is run off the wedge, all the weight will be 
taken off the box. Before running the wheel off the wedge, 
however, take out the oil cellar and brass and fit a block of 
wood between the pedestal binder and the bottom of the dri¬ 
ving box, and another in place of the oil cellar to carry the box 
and wheel. Then run the wheel off the wedge and let the journal 



94 


BREAKDOWNS. 


§9 


rest on the block of wood. Put some waste on the block 
around the journal and oil it well, so as to keep the journal 
lubricated. The object in carrying the wheel off the rail is 
to have all the weight of the axle, wheel, and rods carried on 
the block by the pedestal brace. Eight-wheelers, moguls, or 
consolidation engines may be treated in the same manner, 
always remembering that the spring and equalizing gear 
must be blocked in such a way as to keep the weight off the 
defective box. 

BROKEN AXLE ON FOUR-WHEELED ENGINE TRUCK. 

48. If an axle on a four-wheeled engine truck should 
break, jack up the front end of the engine high enough to take 
the weight off the truck; then raise the truck frame and the box 
with the broken axle parallel to the one on the opposite side, and 



put a block under the journal box on the stay-plate or pedestal 
(see Fig. 18) that is thick enough to hold the box in that 
position. The journal-box and truck frame can be raised by 
placing a jack under the journal. Chain the truck in position 
by means of a chain (marked a ) wound around the main frame 
rail and the stay-plate, passing the chain between the stay- 
plate bolts, as shown, to prevent its slipping off. Then fasten 
another chain (marked b ) around the corner of the truck frame 
nearest the broken axle and the engine frame on the opposite 
side of the engine, to prevent the back end of the truck from 
swinging far enough to allow the hind truck wheel to drop off 
the rail. A block should then be placed between the top of the 
front end of the equalizer on the disabled side and the engine 






























§9 


BREAKDOWNS. 


95 


frame, as shown in the figure. In case the front axle breaks, 
chain and block in a similar manner. The jack can then be 
removed and the engine carefully run to the terminal. 

With a rigid center, when the engine center casting breaks, 
block across under the truck frame and broken center and over 
the equalizers from one side to the other, as shown in Fig. 19, 
with pieces of rail or anything that can be gotten in and will 
carry the load. Or, you can put solid blocks on each side 
under the engine frame nearest the cylinder saddle and on top 



of the truck frame. This will give you the use of the engine- 
truck springs. This last method is applicable, also, to swing- 
motion trucks. 


BROKEN TENDER-TRUCK WHEEL. 

49. When the tender-truck wheel breaks, if no other 
damage is done, turn the wheel on the rail so as to have the good 
part of the tread on the rail. If the truck frame is of the 
“diamond” style, take a short piece of rail, or a small tie, 
and run it across the top of the stay-plates, or bottom 
pedestal-bolt braces, from one side to the other so that the 
broken part of the wheel will catch on the tie, or rail, as the case 
may be, and skid the wheels. The engine can then be taken care¬ 
fully to where the wheels can be replaced. If the wheels have 
spokes, an iron bar can be used to better advantage than the 
tie, the rail being placed through the spokes. 

If a Fox truck is used, the wheel may be so blocked as to skid, 
by cutting a short block, say the end of a tie, and placing it on 
the bolster-plate flange behind the wheel, allowing the broken 




































96 


BREAKDOWNS, 


9 


part of the wheel to rest against the block, and thus be pre¬ 
vented from turning. If the tender has to be hauled any distance 
in this condition, the weight should be reduced to save the 
skidding wheels as much as possible so that the wheel will 
last until the terminal is reached. This may be done by 
carrying as little water and coal as can be gotten along with. 
When a tender is blocked up in this fashion, the engine should 
proceed cautiously and slowly, as otherwise a bad wreck may 
occur. The proper thing to do is to proceed to the nearest 
place at which the wheels can be replaced, and avoid blocking 
the main track and delaying the traffic. 


BROKEN TENDER-TRUCK AXLE. 

50. If an axle in the tender truck breaks, proceed as 
follows: Raise that end of the tender to position and block 
between the top of the boxes of the good axle and the 
bottom of the tender frame so as to keep it there; then chain 
the disabled end of the truck to a cross-tie placed across 
the tank. 


BROKEN TENDER-COUPLER CASTING. 

51. Many tender frames are so constructed that when the 
tender coupler breaks it is a difficult matter to rig up a device 
behind the tender that will pull a train. If the frames are 
made of channel iron, the following arrangement may be used: 
Loop a chain around the back center casting allowing it to pass 
out under the back end of the tender frame and couple it to a 
single link in the car coupler. If this is not practicable, chain 
from the deck of the engine through under the tender to a 
single link in the front car coupler. A steel tail rope comes 
handy for this purpose. The engine should be turned so as 
to run backwards at the first opportunity to avoid further 
detention in case the chain should break. 




§9 


breakdowns. 


97 


BREAKDOWNS PECULIAR TO PARTICU¬ 
LAR TYPES OF ENGINES. 


EIGHT-WHEELED ENGINES. 


BROKEN SIDE ROD OR BACK PIN. 

52. In the event of either a broken side rod or a broken 
back crankpin, no other damage being done, it will be necessary 
to remove the side rod and its mate on the opposite side. 
The train, or as much of it as can be hauled, can then be 
brought in by means of the two main drivers, since the main 
rods are still up. 


BROKEN TIRE ON FRONT DRIVER. 

53. If the tire breaks on the front driver of an engine 
having overhung spring rigging, it will be necessary to raise 
the wheel the thickness of the tire above the rail and carry 
it in that position after relieving it of the weight it carries. 
To block up for an accident of this kind, proceed as follows: 
Run the wheel with the broken tire up on a wedge, until it 
has been raised 4 or 5 inches, and place an iron block 
between the top of the frame and the spring saddle, as shown 
in Fig. 20. Remove the oil cellar and fit a block of wood 
in its place (the grain of the wood running parallel with 
the axle), and fit another block between the bottom of the 
driving box and the pedestal brace. The two blocks between 
the pedestal brace and the axle are intended to carry the 
weight of the wheel and the box; whereas, the block 
between the top of the frame and the spring saddle relieves the 
box of its load. It is necessary to so relieve the box, for 
the reason that otherwise the pedestal brace would be required 
to carry the weight of both the wheel and the box, and also the 
weight that the box usually carries, and the result would be a 
broken pedestal brace and still more trouble. The space around 
the driving axle should be filled with waste well saturated 






















































































































































































































































9 


BREAKDOWNS. 


99 


with oil, so as to provide lubrication for the journal as it turns 
on the wooden block, and care should be taken to keep this 
box well oiled. Remember that in placing a block over a 
driving box, the oil holes must be left unobstructed so that 
oil can get to the journal freely, as boxes blocked up are liable 
to run hot even when well lubricated. 

Blocking for a broken tire in this manner gives the use of 
both springs. Of course, the box that is blocked up gets no 
benefit from its driving spring, but when the weight is trans¬ 
ferred from the box to the frame, by means of the block 
between the frame and the spring saddle, no extra strain is 
thrown on any one part of the spring rigging. 

If, when the tire breaks, the side rod is so injured as to 
necessitate its removal, its mate must, of course, be taken down; 
but if the side rod is uninjured, there is no reason for their 
removal. The driver brake, however, must be cut out in all 
cases of this kind. 

54. Another method of blocking an eight-wheeled engine 
having overhung driving springs, in the event of a broken 
front tire, is shown in Fig. 21. In this method, the wheel 
is run up on a wedge, and blocks placed in the oil cellar 
and between the bottom of the box and the pedestal brace, 
as in the previous case. To relieve the box of its weight, 
however, a block is placed between the end of the equalizer 
nearest the injured wheel and the top of the frame, as shown. 
By this means, the front driving spring is cut out and severe 
strains are placed on the equalizer, equalizer post, and post 
bolts, which may result in a broken equalizer or equalizer post. 
This method, however, can be used to advantage in cases where 
the front driving spring has been injured in such a way as 
to prevent its carrying its load safely. If the spring or 
hangers are not injured, the first method is preferable to this. 
But the driver brake must be cut out in either case, and if the 
side rods are injured, they must, of course, be removed. 

Fig. 22 shows a method of blocking an eight-wheeled engine 
having underhung spring rigging, should a front tire break. In 
this case, also, the front wheel is run up on a wedge, and blocks 







<N 

6 


t I 



Fig. 23. 

















































































































































































































9 


BREAKDOWNS. 


101 


fitted in place of the oil cellar and between the bottom of the 
driving box and the pedestal brace, as before; with this style 
of spring rigging, however, it will be necessary to either chain 
up that end of the equalizer nearest the injured wheel, as shown 
in the figure, or, if no chain is at hand, block down the back 
end of the equalizer by means of a block placed between the 
bottom of the frame and the top of that end of the equalizer. 
Also block over the back driving box. The driver brake must 
be cut out, and if the side rod is injured, it and its mate must 
be removed. 

55. Two methods of blocking an eight-wheeled engine 
having the equalizer between the frames are shown in Figs. 23 
and 24. The method of blocking shown in Fig. 23 permits 
the use of the front driving spring, and therefore is the prefer¬ 
able method, provided the front spring is in condition to carry 
its load safely. If this spring is so injured, however, as to 
make it unsafe, the second method of blocking had better be 
used, for then the spring is cut out of service. With either 
method, the driver brake must be cut out and the side rods 
removed, if sufficiently injured. 


BROKEN TIRE ON BACK DRIVER. 

56. If, on an eight-wheeled engine, the back driving tire 
should break, it should be blocked up in exactly the same 
manner as the front tire would be; that is, the wheel with the 
broken tire should be run up on a wedge and blocks fitted in 
place of the oil cellar and below the box, as already explained; 
also, an iron block should be placed between the top of the 
frame and the spring saddle, if the spring will carry its load 
properly, but if it will not, the block should be placed between 
the back end of the equalizer and the frame, and also one J over 
the forward driving box. If the engine has underhung rigging, 
the back end of the equalizer must be chained up, or else the 
front end of the equalizer blocked down. The driver brake 
must, of course, be cut out, and if the side rods are sufficiently 
injured, they must be taken down. 



102 


BREAKDOWNS. 


§9 


With the back tire gone, be careful in passing over frogs and 
switches, as there is nothing to keep the good back tire from 
leading into the point of the frog. Chain across from the step 
on the engine deck on the disabled side to the tender frame on 
the other side; this will hold the good flange against the rail. 

BROKEN FRONT AXLE. 

57. In the event of the front axle on an eight-wheeled 
engine breaking outside the driving box, block up in exactly the 
same manner as you would in the case of a broken tire, except 
that the oil cellar need not be removed. When an axle breaks, 
however, it will be necessary to take down both side rods and 
the main rod on the side of the broken wheel, and as there is no 
wheel to run up on a wedge, the broken end of the axle will have 
to be jacked up to position before blocking. The driver brake 
must be cut out. In this case, it wdll be necessary to proceed 
with simply the engine, as only one driver out of the four is in 
service. If the axle is broken between the boxes, it will be 
necessary to block up both wheels and be towed in. 

BROKEN BACK AXLE. 

58. In the event of the back axle on an eight-wheeled 
engine breaking outside the driving box, block up as you 
would for a broken back tire, without removing the oil 
cellar. In this case, however, the side rods must come down, 
and it will be necessary to jack the broken end of the axle into 
position before blocking. The driver brake must be cut out. 
The engine, and as much of the train as can be hauled with 
the two front drivers, can then be taken in. 


BROKEN FRONT DRIVING SPRING OR HANGER. 

59. In the event of the main spring on an eight-wheeled 
engine breaking, proceed as follows: Run the main driver up on 
a wedge so as to relieve the back spring as much as possible; 
then, by means of a pinch bar, pry up the front end of the equal¬ 
izer until it is level, and block it there, as shown in Fig. 25. 
Then run the main driver off the wedge, run the back driving 







FiG. 25, FlG. 26. 



























































































































































104 


BREAKDOWNS. 


§9 


wheel up on the wedge, and put a block on top of the main box 
under the frames, as shown in the figure, so as to make the 
engine ride level; next run the engine off the wedge and 
slacken the main driving box wedge a little to prevent the box 
sticking in case it should become warm enough to expand and 
stick. See that this box has plenty of oil, and watch it when 
running, as it is liable to heat. Remove the broken parts if 
they are liable to get caught in anything, and you are ready 
to proceed. 

Fig. 26 shows the method of blocking up an eight-wheeled 
engine with underhung spring rigging, in the event of the main 
spring breaking. In this case, a block is placed between the 
top of the main box and the frame, as before, but the equalizer, 
being below the frames, must be chained into position instead 



of being blocked up, as in the former case. Blocking the back 
end of the equalizer down serves the same purpose as chaining 
the front end up. 

In Fig. 27 is shown a method of blocking an eight-wheeled 
engine (in the event of main spring breaking) having the equal¬ 
izer between the top and the bottom bars of the frame, as 
shown. The only difference in blocking the above styles of 
spring riggings lies in the method of securing the equalizer. 

BROKEN BACK DRIVING SPRING OR HANGER. 

60. In the event of the back driving spring or spring 
hanger breaking on an eight-wheeled engine having overhung 
rigging, as in Fig. 28, run the back wheel up on a wedge to 
take the strain off the main spring, pry the back end of the 
equalizer up level and block it there; next run the back wheel 























§9 


BREAKDOWNS. 


105 


off the wedge and run the front driving wheel up on the wedge 
to raise the frame off of the back driving box; then put a 
block on top of the back driving box, under the frame, to 
carry the engine level. Slacken the back driving-box wedge a 



little, as in the case of broken main-driving spring, to prevent 
the box sticking, and oil the box freely. 

In Fig. 29 is shown a method of blocking for a broken back 
spring or spring hanger in an engine having an equalizer 
between the top and bottom bars of the frame and another over 
the back driving box. To do this, raise the back end of the 
engine with jacks or by running the back wheel up on a wedge, 
to relieve the springs as much as possible; then pry the back 
end of the equalizer down until it is in its normal position; 
then insert a block of iron or hardwood between the back end 
of the equalizer and the top bar of the frame, as shown. Next 



run the back driver down off the wedge and the front driver up 
on it to raise the frame above the back driving box, and block 
between the box of the back driver and the frame, taking care 
to leave oil holes open. Also oil the back box freely. This 
method of blocking gives you the use of the front spring. 






















































106 


BREAKDOWNS. 


§9 


BROKEN EQUALIZER. 

61. In the event of the equalizer or equalizer post break¬ 
ing on an eight-wheeled engine, that side of the engine on 
which it breaks will drop down until the frame rests solidly 
on the driving boxes. The thing to do in a case of this kind is 
to raise the frame on that side to its normal position and block 
between it and the driving boxes to hold it there. To do this, 
proceed in the following manner: Run the back driver up on a 
wedge until an iron block of the proper size to hold the 
frame in position can be placed between the front driving box 
and the bottom of the frame, as shown in Fig. 30. Running 
the back wheel up on the wedge causes it to take the weight 
off the front driver and raise the frame above the front driving 
box far enough so that the iron block can be put in position as 
indicated in the figure. After blocking between the front driv¬ 
ing box and the frame, roll the back driver off the wedge and 
run the front driver up on it. This will cause the front driver 
to take the weight off the back driver and raise the frame far 
enough so that an iron block can be placed between the top 
of the back driving box and the bottom of the frame, as shown 
in the figure. The front driver should then be run off the 
wedge. If the spring rigging on that side is not properly 
secured so as to avoid further damage, take out the springs, 
and then proceed. Blocking both drivers in the manner indi¬ 
cated in Fig. 30 makes that side of the engine rigid, since it cuts 
out both the driving springs. The side rods need not be discon¬ 
nected for an accident of this nature, neither is it necessary to 
cut out the driver brake, but the driving boxes on the side of 
the engine that is blocked up should be closely watched and 
should receive oil liberally, as they are liable to become hot. 

MOGUL ENGINE. 

BROKEN BACK SECTION OF SIDE ROD. 

62. In the event of a broken back section of the side rod 
(the knuckle-joint pin being back of the main pin), remove that 
section and its mate, as previously explained. This will still 
leave the first and second pairs of drivers in good condition and 
in service. 









































































































































































































108 


BREAKDOWNS. 


§9 


BROKEN FRONT SECTION OF SIDE ROD. 

63. In the event of the front section of the side rod 
breaking (the knuckle-joint pin being back of the main pin), all 
side rods must come down and only the main drivers will be 
left in service. The train, or as much of it as can be hauled 
with only the main drivers, is then ready to proceed. 

BROKEN TIRE ON FRONT DRIVER. 

64. In the event of the front tire on a mogul engine 
breaking, run that wheel up on a wedge so as to raise it to about 
its normal position; remove the oil cellar and fit a block in its 
place and fill the space between the bottom of the box and the 
pedestal brace with another block, as shown in Fig. 31. Put 
waste in the space around the journal and saturate it well with 
oil; then put an iron block between the top of the frame and 
the spring saddle, as shown in the figure, to make the frame 
carry the weight that is usually carried by the box. Next, 
cut out the driver brake. If the side rods are uninjured, there 
is no reason why they should be taken down. 

If the middle driver is flangeless, great care will have to be 
exercised in going around curves, for the reason that there will 
be no guiding flange on the first set of drivers, and since the 
truck wheel and the back drivers are the only guides, the first 
driving wheel is liable to drop off the rail. If, in your judg¬ 
ment, the wheel is apt to drop off the rail when on a curve, 
it will probably be well to swing the other front driver until 
you are on a straight track again, when it may be dropped on 
the rail and allowed to carry its load,, or block the engine truck. 
In swinging this wheel, though, it is best not to swing it higher 
than will just allow it to clear the rail. To swing it, run it up 
on a wedge and block up, as in the case of a broken tire. 


BROKEN TIRE ON MIDDLE DRIVER. 

65. In the event of the main tire of a mogul breaking, 
run that wheel up on a wedge until it is in about its normal 
position; take out the oil cellar and replace it with a block, and 
block between the bottom of the box and the pedestal brace, 







Fig. 33, 


































































































































































































110 


BREAKDOWNS. 


§9 


as shown in Fig. 32; then place an iron block between the top 
of the frame and the spring saddle to carry the weight off the 
box. This permits of the use of the middle driving spring. If 
it is found that the middle driving spring will not carry the 
weight satisfactorily, block up that end of the equalizer next to 
the broken wheel instead of blocking between the frame and the 
spring saddle; that is, put a block between the top frame and 
the end of the equalizer, as explained in connection with eight¬ 
wheeled engines. Cut out the driver brake and you are 
ready to proceed. 


BROKEN TIRE ON BACK DRIVER. 

66. When an accident occurs to the back tire of a mogul 
engine, swing that wheel and block it as in the case of the 
middle wheel; in other words, block below the driving box and 
in place of the oil cellar, and either block between the frame 
and under the spring saddle or between the frame and the 
back end of the equalizer. Then cut out the driver brake 
and proceed. 

If the middle drivers have blind tires, this breakdown will 
not be so easily handled; in that event, there will be no guiding 
flange on either the middle or back driver on the broken side, 
and the result will be that the engine will have a tendency to 
drop off the track. To prevent this, fasten a stout chain to the 
back end of the frame on the side having the broken tire and 
secure the other end of the chain to the opposite side of the 
tender in such a way as will hold the back end of the engine over 
toward the side having the good rear driver; in other words, 
this chain should tend to crowd the engine over against the 
flange of the rear driver and thus guide the rear end of the 
engine. Proceed with great caution when thus chained up, 
looking out for frogs and switches that this flange may lead into. 


BROKEN AXLE ON FRONT DRIVER. 

67. Whenever the axle on the front driver breaks outside 
the box, it is necessary to remove all the side rods, while the 
driver brake must be cut out. After removing the side rods 
it will be necessary to remove the broken driver. This.is a 





§9 


BREAKDOWNS. 


Ill 


difficult thing to do, especially on engines having the alligator 
type of crosshead. The driver may be removed, however, 
as follows: Disconnect the main rod on that side and push 
the crosshead to its forward position, in order to give as 
much space as possible between the guide yoke and the end 
of the crosshead; this will allow more space in which to 
work the wheel out of the way. Next, cut off the ends of 
two or three ties and dig a hole in the ground directly under 
the wheel, and sufficiently deep that when the wheel is dropped 
into it, the wheel may be worked from under the guides and 
out of the way. After removing the wheel, jack up the axle 
until it is in its normal position and block up between the 
bottom of the driving box and pedestal brace, and the oil 
cellar will carry the axle in the proper position; next block 
between the top of the frame and the spring saddle so as to 
relieve the box of the weight it carries. It should next be 
ascertained whether the crank of the front driver on the 
opposite side will clear the crosshead, since in some makes of 
engines it will not. If it is found that it will not clear the 
crosshead it will be necessary to swing that wheel also, placing 
the pin in such a way that it will clear the crosshead. To 
swing this wheel, block up in exactly the same manner as in 
case of a broken axle, only now the wheel can be raised by 
means of a wedge instead of by jacking up the axle. Care 
must be taken, when rounding curves, that the drivers with 
blind tires do not drop off the rails. The driver brake must be 
cut out. 


BROKEN AXLE ON MAIN DRIVER. 

68. In case of an axle on the main driver breaking out¬ 
side of the box, it will be hard to say how much damage may 
be done. If no other damage is done, however, it will be 
necessary to take down all the side rods, and the main rod on 
the disabled side; also, to block the crosshead, disconnect the 
valve rod, and clamp the valve on the center of the seat, so 
as to cover the steam ports. Then remove the wheel, jack up 
the broken end of the journal until it is in its proper position, 
and fit a block below the driving box and the pedestal brace; 




112 


BREAKDOWNS. 


§9 


then block between the top of the frame and the spring saddle, 
if the main spring will carry its load safely, but if it will not, 
block between the end of the equalizer nearest the broken axle 
and the top of the frame. Next, cut out the driver brake. 
When thus stripped, the engine has only one main rod up and 
one driving wheel in actual service, so that the engineer cannot 
hope to do more than just take the lone engine into the 
terminal. It must be borne in mind, however, that the force 
exerted by the steam cylinder is now applied directly to one 
driver, instead of to the three drivers as when they were all con¬ 
nected; hence the throttle must be used very carefully or the 
driver will slip badly and catch on the center. 

If the main drivers have blind tires and no collars on the 
axle, or, if the axle is broken between the boxes, it will be 
necessary to swing the good main wheel also, in which case it 
will be necessary to tow the engine in. Before doing this, 
disconnect the valve rod and clamp the valve in mid-position, 
and also block the crosshead. Then, raising the wheel until 
the box is against the top of the jaw, block in this position, 
and chain the wheel fast with the counterweight on the 
lower side; this is to prevent the wheel working out far 
enough to cause further trouble. If time is valuable and it is 
desired to get things out of the way as quickly as possible, so 
as to prevent obstruction to the main track, the links and 
eccentrics may be left up in each case, and the engine should 
be towed carefully to avoid further damage. 


BROKEN AXLE ON BACK DRIVER. 

69. When the back axle breaks outside the driving box 
and no other damage is done, remove both back sections of the 
side rods, remove the broken wheel, jack up the broken end of 
the axle until it is in its normal position, and block between 
the bottom of the box and the pedestal brace. Then block 
between the top of the frame and the spring saddle, or, if the 
spring will not carry its load, between the top of the frame and 
the back end of the equalizer. If the middle tire is a blind 
one, it will be necessary to fasten a chain around the tail-piece 




§9 


BREAKDOWNS. 


113 


of the engine frame on the disabled side, and then pass it across 
to the opposite side, secure to the front corner of the tender 
frame, and wedge it there as tightly as possible so as to crowd 
the flange of the wheel against the rail. The driver brake 
should be cut out and the engine run carefully to the shop. 
When rounding a curve, place a wedge between the tender 
frame and the engine frame, close to the drawbar on the side 
next to the broken wheel, so as to help guide the back end 
of the engine. 

BROKEN FRONT SPRING, OR HANGER. 

70. Should the front spring on a mogul engine having a 
spring rigging like that shown in Fig. 33, break, proceed as 
follows: The end of the cross-equalizer next to the broken 
spring will drop on top of the frame, and if this does not drop 
the long truck equalizer too low, it may be allowed to remain 
there. However, it had better be raised to position and a 
block placed between it and the top of the frame, as shown. 
This will carry the back end of the long truck equalizer. The 
truck wheel on the disabled side of the engine should then be 
run up on a wedge, to raise the frame on that side to the proper 
height; an iron block should then be placed between the top of 
the front driving box and the frame, as shown, to carry the 
weight rigidly on that box. The front truck may then be run 
off the wedge and the engine will be ready to proceed; but the 
box that has the block between it and the frame should be well 
lubricated, and closely watched, as a box blocked up in this 
fashion is very apt to run hot. 


BROKEN MAIN SPRING. 

71. When the main spring, or hanger, on a mogul engine 
having spring rigging like that shown in Fig. 34, breaks, the 
following plan should be used: Place a block between the top 
of the driving box and the frame on the front and back drivers 
so as to take up the play there and prevent the boxes rising in 
the pedestal jaws. Then run these two drivers up on wedges so 
as to raise the frame to its regular height above the main 
driving box, and block up this box by placing an iron block 









Fig. 35 































































































































































































§9 


BREAKDOWNS. 


115 


between the top of the box and the bottom of the frame. This 
will make the main driver rigid. Next, pry up the end of the 
spring between the frames that is next to the broken spring, and 
place a block between the end of the spring and the top of the 
bottom rail of the frame, as shown in the figure. Blocking like 
this relieves the broken spring and cuts it out of service. After 
blocking in this manner, run the drivers off the wedges and 
remove the blocking from above the front and back driving 
boxes, as otherwise the whole side of the engine would be 
carried rigidly on the boxes. 


BROKEN INTERMEDIATE EQUALIZER. 

72. In the event of an intermediate equalizer on a mogul 
engine breaking, the spring rigging being similar to that shown 
in Fig. 35, remove, if possible, the broken piece of the equalizer. 
Next, run the main driver up on a wedge, so as to raise the frame 
above the rear driving box, and thus permit the insertion of an 
iron block between the top of the box and the frame; then pry 
up the back end of the spring that is between the top and 
bottom rails of the frame and place a block between the back 
end of the spring and the lower rail of the frame; this will 
make the rear driver rigid on that side, but it will permit of the 
use of the other springs. Sometimes it is difficult, or even 
impossible, to remove the equalizer so as to permit of a block 
being placed on the rear box below the frame. In this event, 
simply block up the rear end of the spring, as already 
explained, and allow the main wheel to carry the overhanging 
weight. If the engine settles badly on this account, it may be 
necessary to block between the main driving box and the frame. 
Block the rear driving spring as shown in the figure. 


BROKEN LONG EQUALIZER ON MOGUL. 

73. When Break Occurs in Front of Fulcrum 
Bearing. —Just what to do in case the long equalizer that 
evenly distributes the weight between the front drivers and the 
truck of a mogul engine breaks, will depend on the position 




116 


BREAKDOWNS. 


§9 


of the break and also on the construction of the fulcrum 
bearing of the equalizer. On some engines the fulcrum is con¬ 
structed as in Fig. 36, having two holes through the equalizer 
and the fulcrum-bearing casting for the purpose of changing the 
weight on the truck wheels. In case this equalizer breaks for¬ 
ward of the fulcrum bearing, the front piece should be removed 
or secured so that it can cause no trouble. The truck should 
then be blocked up solidly between the truck and frames by 
placing blocks on top of the pony truck-frame hangers directly 
under the frame of the engine, and it should afterwards be run 
up on wedges so as to raise the engine frame with respect to the 
front driving boxes. Jacks may be used for the purpose if 
at hand. This has the same effect as though the front driving 
wheel and its box were lowered in the jaw, and it eases the 
tension of the springs considerably. The back end of the equal¬ 
izer should be pried down until it is possible to put another pin 
through the extra hole in the equalizer-fulcrum casting and 
equalizer bar, thus applying pins to both holes. By this means 
the equalizing bar is made rigid and will hold the crosstequal- 
izer and the front driving springs in position. The truck wheels 
should then be run off the wedges. On engines having the 
equalizer constructed with only one bolt hole, probably the best 
thing to do would be to block between the front driving box 
and the frame on both sides so as to carry the frame rigidly 
on the front boxes. Another plan is to raise the front end 
of the engine frames and pry the front ends of the front driving 
springs down to position and chain the cross-equalizer to position 
by chaining around the engine frames. 

74. When Break Occurs Back of Fulcrum Bear¬ 
ing. —If the break occurs back of the fulcrum, the front part 
may be left in position, as it can do no harm, but the loose 
broken pieces should be removed to prevent trouble. The 
quickest way of handling this breakdown is to run the front 
truck up on wedges, as before, or use jacks, so as to raise the 
frames sufficiently high above the front driving boxes, that when 
they are blocked in that position and the truck then run off the 
wedges, the front end of the frame will not bear down on the 






§9 


BREAKDOWNS. 


117 


truck enough to make it rigid. Then block the frame in this 
position by placing iron blocks between the top of the front 
driving box and the frame, on both sides of the engine; run the 
truck off the wedges, and proceed. The engine should be run 
carefully around curves, over frogs, switches, etc. 

Another method of handling this accident would be to place 
a tie crosswise below the top bar of the rail, and chain the cross¬ 
equalizer to this tie, as shown in Fig. 36; by this means the 
front driving springs can be utilized. 

Still another method is to block between the top of the cross¬ 
equalizer and the bottom of the boiler. When this method is 
used, the blocking must be in long pieces and placed lengthwise 
of the boiler so as to cover a large surface. 


BROKEN FRONT PIN OF TRUCK EQUALIZER. 

75 . First Method.— In case the front pin, or “Aleck 
bolt, ” of a long truck equalizer on a mogul engine should break, 
raise the front end of the engine above its normal position (by 
means of jacks or otherwise) so as to raise the frames with respect 
to the front driving boxes, thus easing the tension of the front 
driving springs; next, jack up the front end of the equalizer 
and place a hardwood block, or, better still, a truck brass, 
if one can be obtained, on top of the truck axle and allow 
the end of the equalizer to rest on it, as shown in Fig. 37. 
This will cause the truck to carry its share of the weight as 
usual. The brass should be kept well oiled, however, to avoid 
undue heating. If a hardwood block is used, it is best to 
gouge out, if possible, the shape of the axle, so as to increase 
the bearing surface, and a flat piece of iron should be placed on 
top of the block between it and the equalizer. If the axle is 
kept well oiled where the brass rides on it, but little trouble will 
be experienced. 

76 . Second Method.— Another method of blocking up, 
in case the front pin, or ‘ ‘Aleck bolt, ’ ’ of the long truck equalizer 
breaks, is shown in Fig. 38. To block up in this manner, jack 
up the front end of the engine, either by means of jacks or by 








































































































































































































§9 


BREAKDOWNS. 


119 


running the front truck up on wedges, or otherwise, so as to 
relieve the tension on the spring rigging; then jack up the 
front end of the long equalizer until it is a little above its 
normal position; place a tie, a short piece of rail, or anything 
that will stand the strain, across the front of the frame, as 
showm, and then chain the front end of the long equalizer to 
this tie. This will hold the front end of the long equalizer 
rigid, but will give the use of the front driving spring. The 
front truck, however, will be relieved of its share of the load, 
and is liable to get off the track. 


ATLANTIC TYPE ENGINE. 


BROKEN SIDE ROD OR FRONT PIN. 

77 . In the event of a side rod or the front crankpin of 
an Atlantic type engine breaking, proceed in exactly the same 
manner as you would if the side rod or back pin of a standard 
eight-wheeled engine broke. In other words, remove both the 
broken side rod and its mate, and proceed by using simply the 
main drivers. 


BROKEN TIRE ON FRONT DRIVER. 

78. If the tire on the front driver of an Atlantic type 
engine should break, proceed to block up in exactly the same 
manner as you would in the event of a back tire on an 
eight-wheeled engine breaking. Unless the side rod or front 
pin is so injured as to necessitate the removal of the side rods, 
they may remain up, but the driver brake must be cut out. 


BROKEN TIRE ON MAIN DRIVER. 

79 . In the event of a back driving tire breaking on an 
Atlantic type engine, proceed as you would in the case of a tire 
breaking on a main driver of an eight-wheeled engine, and 
block up as shown in Fig. 39. Care should also be taken to 
see that the driver brake is cut out. 








Fig. 39. 
























































































































































































































































9 


BREAKDOWNS. 


121 


BROKEN TIRE ON TRAILER WHEEL. 

80. When the tire on the trailer wheel of an Atlantic type 
engine breaks, it is necessary to swing that wheel and carry it 
clear of the rail; then, since the main driver is so far forwards, 
some means must be provided to prevent the back end of the 
engine settling on that side. To swing the wheel, proceed as 
follows: Run the trailer wheel up on a wedge until the wheel 
is raised slightly higher than its normal position. Remove the 
oil cellar and fit a block between the bottom of the trailer box 
and the pedestal brace; then fit a block in place of the oil cellar 
so as to carry the wheel in its raised position. Next, in order to 
relieve the box of the weight it usually carries, pry up the back 
end of the equalizer and place a block between the end of the 
equalizer and the bottom bar of the frame, as shown in Fig. 40, 
so as to hold it in position. The weight will now be carried by 
the drivers, and as there is a long overhang on that side, the 
back end of the engine will settle considerably. In order to 
hold the engine in position, take a piece of tie and place it as 
far back in the cab as possible, on the side that is disabled, 
allowing it to extend over on to the deck of the tank a short dis¬ 
tance, as is shown in the figure. Next pass a chain around the 
tail-piece of the engine and around the tie, and after raising 
the back corner of the engine slightly higher than its normal 
position by means of a jack-screw, hook the chain as tightly 
as possible and wedge between the chain and the tie to prevent 
the end of the engine settling when the jack is removed. If a 
tie cannot be obtained, any stout bar of steel or iron that will 
stand the weight that will be thrown upon it may be used. 
Before proceeding, cut out the engine brake. 

In the case of deckless engines, rest the tire or bar of iron 
in the firehole opening and chain as above. 

BROKEN FRONT AXLE. 

81. The breaking of the front axle of an Atlantic type 
engine necessitates the taking down of both side rods, and 
also the main rod on the side on which the mishap occurs, 
in order that the driver may be dropped out of the way. 
Then proceed as follows: Jack up the broken end of the axle 



122 


BREAKDOWNS. 


until it is in its normal position, and block up between the 
bottom of the box and the pedestal brace; also, place a block 
between the top of the frame and the spring saddle so as to 
take the weight off of the driving box and place it on the 
frame; connect up the main rod on that side again, cut out 
the driver brake, and proceed by using the main drivers. Care 
must be taken in handling the throttle, for the reason that the 
force of the cylinders is exerted on one pair of drivers instead of 
on two, and the drivers, consequently, are very apt to slip. 


BROKEN MAIN AXLE. 

82. A broken main axle on an Atlantic type engine 
means that both side rods and the main rod on the disabled 
side will have to come down. The valve stem should be 
disconnected on that side and the valve clamped in mid¬ 
position; also, the crosshead should be securely blocked, noting 
if the moving crosshead on the other side will clear the pin on 
the front wheel. After the main driver has been dropped out of 
the way, jack up the broken end of the axle and block it up as 
in the case of a broken axle on the front driver. In this case, 
also, the driver brake must be cut out; and since the engine is 
to be taken in by the aid of but one driver, the engine must 
be cut loose from the train and the throttle only partly opened, 
and the engine must be run light in this condition. 


BROKEN AXLE OF TRAILING WHEEL. 

83. When the axle of a trailing wheel breaks outside the- 
box, proceed in exactly the same manner as in the case of a 
broken tire on that wheel, but without removing the cellar. 
It will be necessary to jack up the broken axle in this case, 
however, as it cannot be raised by means of a wedge, since the 
wheel is broken off. The engine brake must be cut out in 
this case also. 


BROKEN MAIN DRIVING SPRING. 

84. Engine Having Overhung Rigging.— Should a 
main spring or hanger of an Atlantic type engine break, run 
the main driver up on a wedge so as to relieve the springs, and, 






BREAKDOWNS. 


123 


§9 

prying up the back end of the front equalizer, place a block 
between the back end of the equalizer and the bottom rail of 
the frame, as shown in Fig. 41. Then pry down the back 
end of the back equalizer and block between that end of the 
equalizer and the top bar of the frame, as shown; this will 
permit of the use of the front and back springs. Next, run 
the main driver off the wedge and the front driver up on it, 
then block between the top of the box and the frame so as to 
make this driver carry its share of the load. All the broken 
parts of the spring and hanger should be removed in order to 
prevent their causing further trouble. 

85. Underhung Rigging.—In the event of the main 
spring or hanger on an underhung spring rigging breaking, 
remove the broken parts in order to avoid further trouble, run 
the main driver up on a wedge so as to relieve the front driver 
and the trailer of the weight they carry, then prying up the 
back end of the front equalizer until it is a little above its 
normal position, chain the back end in this position, as shown 
in Fig. 42; next, pry up the front end of the back equalizer 
until it is slightly above its normal position and chain it in this 
position. Instead of chaining up the back end of the front 
equalizer and the front end of the back equalizer, as shown in 
Fig. 42, the front end of the front equalizer and the back end of 
the back equalizer may be blocked down to position by block¬ 
ing between the end of the equalizer and the bottom bar of the 
frame. This will allow the use of the front and back springs, as 
in the previous case. After blocking the equalizers in position, 
run the main driver off the wedge and the front driver on it, 
and block between the top of the main driving box and the 
frame so that the main driver will carry its share of the load. 

BROKEN FRONT SPRING. 

86. In case the front spring should break, run the front 
driver up on a wedge so as to relieve the spring rigging as much 
as possible. Next pry down on the back end of the front 
equalizer until the equalizer is level, and block between the 
front end of this equalizer and the bottom rail of the frame. 





Fig. 41 


























































































































































































9 


BREAKDOWNS. 


125 


This cuts out the broken spring, but permits of the use of the 
main spring and the trailer spring. Next run the front driver 
off the wedge and the main driver on it, and block between the 
top of the front driving box and the frame so as to give that 
driver its share of the load. If the spring rigging is underhung, 
proceed in exactly the same manner, only in thiscase the front 
end of the forward equalizer will have to be blocked down. 

NOETHWESTERN TYPE ENGINE. 

BROKEN SIDE ROD OR FRONT PIN. 

87. On an engine of the Northwestern type* if the side rod 
or front pin should break, proceed in exactly the same manner 
as you would in the event of a similar accident happening to an 
Atlantic type engine. 

BROKEN TIRE ON FRONT DRIVER. 

88. A broken tire on the front driver of a Northwestern 
type engine should be handled like a broken tire on a front 
driver of an Atlantic type engine. 

BROKEN TIRE ON MAIN DRIVER. 

89. In the event.of the tire on the main driver of a North¬ 
western type engine breaking, proceed as in the case of a broken 
tire on a main driver of an Atlantic type engine. 


BROKEN TIRE ON TRAILER WHEEL. 

90. When the tire of the trailer wheel of a Northwestern 
type engine breaks, in order to get the engine to the shop it will 
be necessary to raise the wheel off the rail and carry it there 
after relieving it of the weight it carried. To do this proceed 
as follows: Run the wheel up on a wedge, remove the oil 
cellar and fit a block of hardwood in its place for the journal 
to run on, and put waste on each side of the journal and saturate 
it with oil; then block between the lower side of the box and 
the pedestal brace, as shown in Fig. 43, to hold the wheel in 
position. This blocking will carry the wheel clear of the rail, 
but as the thimble bolt will not carry the weight that would 
















































































































































































































9 


BREAKDOWNS. 


127 


thus be thrust upon it, it is necessary to relieve the wheel of the 
weight it carries. To do this put a strong chain around the end 
of the cross-equalizer, as shown in Fig. 43, and chain it up to 
the frame, or else block below that end of the cross-equalizer in 
the safety hanger. When the trailer wheel is carried off the 
rail, the overhanging weight back of the main driver throws 
considerable strain on the main spring, which may not be able 
to carry it. In order to protect this spring, block between the 
top of the main driving box and the frame. It may be better 
to carry the weight of the back end of the engine on the disabled 
side, as in the case of a similar accident to an Atlantic type 
engine, which was previously explained, in which case it will 
be unnecessary to block between the rear driving box and the 
frame to protect the driving spring. When a trailer wheel is 
blocked up in this manner, care must be taken when rounding 
curves to prevent the good trailer wheel from dropping off the 
track; if the curves are so short that there is danger of this 
wheel dropping off the rail, place a wedge between the tender 
and the engine, close to the drawbar on the disabled side, that 
is, on the same side as is the broken tire. This wedge should 
be put in place before entering the curve, so as to make a rigid 
connection between the tender and the engine, as it will have a 
tendency to crowd the flanged wheel against the rail. Care 
must be taken, also, not to use too large a block, as it will have 
a tendency to crowd the front end of the engine or the rear end 
of the tender off the track. A better method of preventing the 
trailer wheel dropping off the track is to chain the back end 
of the engine frame on the disabled side to the opposite side 
of the tender. 

BROKEN FRONT DRIVING AXLE. 

91. A broken front driving axle on a Northwestern type 
engine should be handled in exactly the same manner as a 
similar accident to an Atlantic type engine. 

BROKEN MAIN AXLE. 

92. In the event of a main axle breaking, proceed as you 
would if the main axle of an Atlantic type engine should break. 


128 


BREAKDOWNS. 


§9 


BROKEN TRAILER AXLE. 

93. A broken trailer axle on an engine of the North¬ 
western type should be handled in the same manner as a similar 
accident to an Atlantic type engine. 


BROKEN FRONT DRIVING SPRING. 

94. If the front driving spring of a Northwestern type 
engine should break, run the front driver up on a wedge s * as to 
make that driver take the load and ease the tension on the spring 
rigging, and then pry up the front end of the equalizer nearest 
the broken spring until the equalizer is in its normal position; 
a block should then be placed either between the front end of 
the equalizer and the lower bar of the frame or between the 
back end of the equalizer and the upper bar of the frame. 
This method of blocking gives the use of the main driving 
spring and the trailer spring. Next run the front driver off 
the wedge and the back driver up on it, and block between the 
top of the driving box and the frame so as to make the front 
driver carry its share of the load. Remove the broken parts, if 
they are liable to cause trouble, or else secure them so that they 
will safely ride in position. 


BROKEN MAIN DRIVING SPRING. 

95. Should the main driving spring break, run that 
driver up on a wedge so as to relieve the spring rigging, then 
pry up the back end of the front equalizer and block between 
that end and the top bar of the frame; also, pry down the 
back end of the trailer-wheel equalizer on that side, and block 
between this end of the equalizer and the bottom of the frame 
at that point. Next, run the main driver off the wedge and 
the front driver up on it, and block between the top of the 
main driving box and the frame so that the main driver will 
carry its share of the load. 

BROKEN TRAILER SPRING. 

96. Besides the usual main frames of the engine, the 
Northwestern type engine has a short supplemental frame, 
marked a, Fig. 44, also Fig. 45. This frame is outside of the 








§9 


BREAKDOWNS. 


129 


main frame and is secured to the back end of it near the fire¬ 
box. The pedestal jaws of the trailer wheel are of heavy cast 
steel, and are bolted to the outside face of the supplemental 
frame, as shown in the figure. Both the pedestal jaws and the 
journal box of the trailer wheel are, therefore, outside of 
the supplemental frame; hence, when a trailer spring breaks, 
the weight cannot be thrown on the trailer box by blocking 
between the top of the box and the supplemental frame, for 
the reason that the box is outside of the frame; consequently, 
other means must be adopted for making the trailer box carry 
the load. 

Whenever the trailer spring breaks, first remove the broken 
parts to avoid further trouble. And as this breakage allows the 



Fig. 45. 

end of the cross-equalizer nearest the broken spring to drop 
into the U-shaped safety hanger, this end of the cross-equalizer 
must be jacked into position, and, if necessary, blocked there 
temporarily by placing a block in the safety hanger below it to 
hold the cross-equalizer in position. Next, by means of a 
jack or otherwise, raise the back end of the engine frame on 
the disabled side until the engine rides level; then use a tie, 
a piece of steel rail, or steel bar, or anything that will carry the 
weight that is usually carried by the trailer spring, and with it 
replace the broken spring. The front end of the tie (or 
whatever is used) should be chained to the end of the cross¬ 
equalizer, as shown, while the back end is securely chained to 





































Fig. 46 

















































































































































































































9 


BREAKDOWNS. 


131 


the supplemental frame and the lower hanger pin. After 
chaining the tie, remove the block from the safety hanger 
below the cross-equalizer so as to throw the weight on the 
trailer box. This method of blocking, Fig. 44, gives the use 
of all the springs on the engine except the broken one, the 
engine riding rigidly upon that trailer wheel. 


BROKEN TRAILER-SPRING FRONT HANGER. 

97. In the event of a trailer-spring front hanger breaking, 
and no other damage being done to the spring or the other 
parts, the hanger may be replaced by a chain, if one that can 
be used is at hand. To do this, raise the back end of the 
engine on the broken side, by means of a jack, so as to 
relieve the trailer spring; jack up the end of the cross-equalizer 
next to the broken hanger and block below it in the safety 
hanger; pry down the front end of the trailer spring, and then 
securely chain the end of the spring to the end of the cross¬ 
equalizer. Remove the block from below the equalizer in the 
safety hanger so as to allow the end of the cross-equalizer to 
have free play, and then proceed. 


BROKEN TRAILER-SPRING BACK HANGER. 

98. If the back hanger of a trailer spring should break, 
the back end of the spring may be secured to the lower hanger 
pin by means of a chain, the chain also being secured to the 
frame in such a way as to prevent its working off the hanger 
pin. To do this work, raise the back end of the engine on the 
broken side with a jack and also jack up the end of the cross¬ 
equalizer on the broken side so as to relieve the spring; then 
pry down the back end of the trailer spring and chain it as above. 


BROKEN CROSS-EQUALIZER. 

99. Should a cross-equalizer on a Northwestern type 
engine break, as shown in Fig. 45, it will allow the back end of 
the engine to settle down on that side, since there will be noth¬ 
ing there to support the front end of the trailer spring. In order 







132 


BREAKDOWNS. 


§9 


to block up for a break of this kind, raise the back end of the 
engine so as to relieve the trailer spring as much as possible. 
Then jack up the broken end of the cross-equalizer until it 
is a little above its normal position, and place a heavy 
bar, that will carry the weight, through the safety hanger 
below the cross-equalizer, as shown in the figure. If space 
is still left between the bottom of this bar and the safety 
hanger, block up with a piece of iron that will hold the cross¬ 
equalizer in its proper position. The bar of iron used should 
extend out far enough to enable the front end of the spring to 
be chained to it. Next block between this bar and the bottom 
of the outside supplemental frame, as shown in the figure, using 
a long hardwood block that will extend from the broken end of 
the cross-equalizer beyond the spring and also through the 
safety hanger,, as shown. Pry down the front end of the trailer 
spring and chain it to the end of the bar, winding the chain 
around the block and bar; also, drive wedges between the sides 
of the block and the safety hanger to help hold the block in 
position. Next wrap a chain around the end of the bar and 
the cross-equalizer, as shown, to prevent the bar working from 
beneath the cross-equalizer; if necessary, wedge between the 
chain and the equalizer to tighten the chain. The brake chain 
from the tender brake rigging may be used for this purpose, if 
long enough. It may assist matters, also, to wedge between the 
temporary bar and the sides of the safety hanger, as by this 
means the bar will be prevented from moving sidewise. This 
method of blocking will carry the back end of the engine in its 
normal position and will give the use of the trailer spring. 


BROKEN TRAILER EQUALIZER. 

100. If Break Occurs in Front of Fulcrum.— When 
one of the trailer equalizers breaks, proceed as follows: If the 
equalizer breaks forwards of the fulcrum, as in Fig. 46, raise 
the back end of the engine on that side by means of a jack, 
or otherwise; then pry down the back end of the main spring 
and block between the bottom spring-hanger pin and the 
frame. The back hanger is made in two pieces, one of which 




9 


BREAKDOWNS. 


133 


extends on either side of the frame and the equalizer, so that 
blocking will be held very nicely between the bottom hanger pin 
and the frame. Next pry down the end of the cross-equalizer 
on that side and block between the top of the trailer equalizer 
and the frame, as shown, to hold this end of the cross¬ 
equalizer in position. Care should be taken to secure the free 
end of the broken equalizer in such a way that it will not cause 
further damage. 

101. If Break Occurs Back of Fulcrum.— If the 
equalizer breaks back of the equalizer fulcrum, jack up the back 
end of the engine on that side, pry down the front end of the 
trailer equalizer, and block between the top of that end of 
the equalizer and the bottom of the frame; then pry down on 
the cross-equalizer until it is in its normal position, and block 
between the top of the cross-equalizer and the frame through 
the U-shaped safety hanger. 


BROKEN INTERMEDIATE EQUALIZER. 

102. Probably the quickest way of handling a broken 
intermediate equalizer on a Northwestern type engine is to raise 
that side of the engine by means of jacks, for by that means 
the tension of the entire spring rigging will be relieved. Then 
pry down the front end of the second driving spring and block 
between the lower hanger pin and the top rail of the frame, 
as shown in Fig. 47; this will give the use of the back driving 
spring. Next pry down the back end of the front driving 
spring and block between the bottom hanger pin and the top 
rail of the frame, as indicated in the above figure; this will give 
the use of the front driving spring. 

Another method will be to handle the accident by means of 
wedges. In that case, run the front driver up on the wedge so as 
to relieve the spring and spring rigging of the back driver, and 
block between the lower hanger pin and the frame, as before. 
Next run the front driver off the wedge and the back driver 
up on it so as to relieve the tension of the front driving spring 
rigging, and pry down the back end of the front driving spring; 
block between the lower hanger pin and the frame, as before. 







Fig. 48 




























































































































































































































































9 


BREAKDOWNS. 


135 


TEN-WHEELED ENGINES. 


BROKEN FRONT SECTION OF SIDE ROD. 

103. In the event of a front section of the side rod break¬ 
ing, it will be necessary to take down all the side rods, if the 
knuckle-joint pin is in the back section and back of the main 
pin. To do this it will be necessary to disconnect the back 
end of both the main rods; then remove the side rods, and con¬ 
nect up the main rods again, and proceed by using but one 
pair of drivers. 


BROKEN BACK SECTION OF SIDE ROD. 

104. In case the back section of the side rod should break, 
it will be necessary to remove both that section and its mate 
on the opposite side, and proceed by using two pairs of drivers. 


BROKEN FRONT* TIRE. 

105. If the front tire of a ten-wheeled engine breaks, run 
that wheel up on a wedge until it is about in its normal position; 
then remove the oil cellar and block between the bottom of the 
box and the pedestal brace; then in place of the oil cellar fit a 
block on which the journal can be carried. Next block between 
the top of the frame and the spring saddle to relieve the box of 
the weight it carries. If the rods are uninjured they need not 
be disconnected, but the driver brake must be cut out of service. 


BROKEN MAIN TIRE. 

106. Should the main tire break and no further damage be 
done, run that wheel up on a wedge to about the height of the 
tire; then block below the bottom of the box and pedestal 
brace, and in place of the oil cellar, as shown in Fig. 48. 
Also, block between the top of the frame and the spring saddle 
to relieve the box of its weight; then cut out the driver brake 
and proceed. 








136 


BREAKDOWNS. 


§9 


BROKEN BACK TIRE ON TEN-WHEELED ENGINE. 

107. When the back tire on a ten-wheeled engine breaks, 
run that driver up on a wedge until it is about the thickness 
of the tire above the rail; then so block between the bottom 
side of the box and the pedestal brace, and in place of the oil 
cellar, as to carry the journal; also, block between the top 
of the frame and the spring saddle so as to relieve that 
box of its load. Then cut the driver brake out of service 
and you are ready to proceed. Of course, if the side rod 
is injured so that it should be removed, its mate, also, must 
come down. 

If the spring rigging is so constructed that the back equalizer 
passes over and rests on the back driving box, as shown in 
Fig. 49, it is impossible to so block between the spring saddle 
and the frame as to throw the load on the frame, and, conse¬ 
quently, it will be necessary to block between the back end of 
the spring that is in front of the wheel between the bars of 
the frame, as shown, so as to make the frames carry the load 
instead of the box. The driver brake must be cut out also, 
as in previous cases. If the back end of the engine settles con¬ 
siderably when blocked up in this way, raise that end, and 
block between the main driving box and the frame in order 
to make the engine rigid on that box. Also, it may be neces¬ 
sary to chain up the back end of the engine as shown in Fig. 40. 


BROKEN AXLE ON FRONT DRIVER. 

108. In cases where the front driving axle breaks outside 
the driving box, and no other damage is done, it will be neces¬ 
sary to take down all the side rods, if the knuckle-joint pin is 
in the back section of the side rod. After removing the front 
driver, jack up the broken end of the front axle to its normal 
position and block between the bottom of the box and the 
pedestal brace. Next block between the top of the frame and 
the spring saddle, so as to relieve the box of the weight it 
carried. Cut out the driver brake and then proceed, using the 
main drivers only. 




9 


BREAKDOWNS. 


137 


BROKEN AXLE OX MAIX DRIVER. 

109. It is hard to say what damage will result in case the 
main driving axle breaks outside the journal box; however, if 
no serious damage is done to the other parts, proceed as 
follows: Take down all side rods and the main rod on that 
side of the engine; disconnect the valve rod on that side and 
clamp the valve in the center of its seat so as to block the 
steam ports to the cylinder; block the crosshead securely, and 
open the cylinder cock back of the piston; next jack the 
broken end of the main axle into position and block as in 
the case of a broken main tire, without removing the cellar; 
then cut out the driver brake and, cutting off the engine 
from the train, proceed with the lone engine, using the one 
driver that is connected up. Care must be taken in handling 
the throttle, however, so as to avoid slipping the driver and 
catching on the center. An engine in this condition should 
be run very carefully on curves. 


BROKEX AXLE OX BACK DRIVER. 

110. If no serious damage is done to the other parts of the 
engine when the axle of the back driver breaks, remove the 
back section of the side rod and its mate, cut out the driver 
brake as in previous cases, jack up the broken end of the back 
driving axle, and block as in case of a broken back tire, without 
removing the cellar. If the middle driver is flangeless, that is, 
if it has a blind tire, it will be necessary to fasten a chain 
around the tail-piece of the engine frame on the disabled side 
and pass it across to the opposite side, securing it to the front 
corner of the tender frame and wedging it there as tightly as 
possible so as to crowd the flange of the wheel against the rail. 
If the engine is to be run backwards, and there are sharp curves 
to pass, you can, in addition to using the chain, employ a 
wedge between the tender and the engine at such times as the 
flanged wheel is on the inside of a curve. However, care 
should be taken not to get the wedge in too tight, as it will 
have a tendency to crowd the rear end of the tender from the 
track. 




























































































































































































§9 


BREAKDOWNS. 


139 


BROKEN FRONT DRIVING SPRING. 

111. In the event of the front driving spring breaking, run 
the front driver up on a wedge, so as to relieve the tension of the 
springs, and then pry the front end of the front equalizer up and 
block between that end of this equalizer and the lower part of 
the frame. Next run the driver off the wedge, and, running the 
second driver up on it, block between the top of the front driving 
box and the frame so as to make the front driver carry its share 
of the load. This will permit the use of the main driving and 
back driving springs, but the engine will be rigid on the front 
driver on the disabled side. 


BROKEN MAIN DRIVING SPRING. 

112. Overhung Rigging. — When the main spring 
breaks, run the front and back drivers on that side up on wedges 
so as to raise the frame sufficiently high above the main driving 
box to permit the insertion between the top of the box and the 
frame of a wedge of the proper thickness to make that driver 
carrv its share of the: load. Next run the two drivers off the 
wedges and run the main driver up on one, so as to relieve the 
tension of the spring rigging as much as possible; then pry up 
the back end of the front equalizer until it is in position 
and block between this end and the lower rail of the frame, as 
shown in Fig. 50. Next pry up the front end of the back 
equalizer into position and block between the front end of this 
equalizer and the top of the frame. Then block between the 
top of the main driving box and the frame so as to put some of 
the weight on the driver. This will permit the use of the front 
and back driving springs, but the engine will ride rigidly on the 
main driver, the box of which should be liberally oiled. 

113. Underhung Rigging.— Should the main spring 
break on an engine having underhung rigging, proceed as you 
would in the case of the main spring breaking on an engine 
with overhung rigging. The only difference is that it will be 
necessary to chain the back end of the front equalizer and the 
front end of the back equalizer to the frames, as shown in 



140 


BREAKDOWNS. 


§9 


Fig. 51. Instead of using chains, you can, if you wish, block 
down the front end of the front equalizer and the back end of 
the back equalizer so as to hold the equalizers in position. 


BROKEN BACK DRIVING SPRING. 

114 . Overhung Rigging. —In case the back spring 
should break, run that driver up on a wedge so as to relieve the 
spring rigging, then pry up on the back end of the equalizer 
until it is in position, and block between that end of the 
equalizer and the top rail of the frame. This will give you 
the use of the main and front driving springs. Then run 
the back driver off the wedge and the main driver up on it, and 
place a block of sufficient thickness between the back driving 
box and the frame to cause that driver to carry its share of 
the load. 

115 . Underhung Rigging.— If on an engine having 
underhung rigging the back spring should break, run that 
wheel up on a wedge in order to relieve the spring rigging; 
then pry up the back end of the back equalizer until it is in 
position and chain it there, or else block between the bottom of 
the frame and the top of the front end of the equalizer to hold 
the equalizer in position. This will give the use of the main 
spring and the front driving spring. Next run the wheel off the 
wedge, and running the main driver up on it, block between 
the top of the back driving box and frame so as to cause that 
driver to carry its share of the weight. 


BROKEN SPRING OR SPRING HANGER ON TRUCK OF TEN¬ 
WHEELED ENGINE. 

116. When a truck spring or truck-spring hanger breaks 
on a ten-wheeled engine, place a block between the top of each 
of the front driving boxes and the frame to take up any play 
that may be there. Then run the front drivers up on wedges so 
as to take the weight off the truck. Care should be taken, 
however, not to raise the engine so high as to lift the main 
wheels off the rails, for in that case the edges of the cellar 







Broken Spring Hanger 















































































































































































































































































142 


BREAKDOWNS. 


9 


may mar the surface of the main journal. Next, pry up the 
engine-truck frame on the broken side until it is level with the 
opposite side, and place blocks between the top of the truck 
equalizer and the under side of the truck frame, as shown in 
Fig. 52, so as to carry it level. The engine may then be run off 
the wedges and the blocks removed from the top of the front 
driving boxes; the engine is then ready to proceed. 


BROKEN TRUCK EQUALIZER. 

117. Should one of the truck equalizers break, place a 
block between the top of the front driving boxes and the frame, 
as before, and run the front drivers up on wedges in order to 
take the weight off the truck; then remove the spring and 
broken equalizer, and place, on top of the truck boxes, blocks of 
wood of the proper thickness to carry the truck level. Then, 
having run the front drivers off the wedges, and removed the 
blocks from above the front driving boxes, the engine is ready 
to proceed. 


CONSOLIDATION ENGINE. 


BROKEN FRONT SECTION OF SIDE ROD. 

118. If the front section of the side rod on a consolidation 
engine should break, and no other damage be done, remove the 
broken section and its mate. If the front crankpin does not clear 
the crosshead key, cut off the end of the key. If the pin does 
not clear the crosshead and guides, the front driver will have to 
be swung clear of the rail and carried that way, with the pins 
up to clear the travel of the crosshead. To do this, the wheels 
must be run up on wedges to the desired height, and blocks 
placed between the bottom of the driving boxes and pedestal 
brace, so as to carry the wheels in position; also, block between 
the top of the frame and the spring saddle on both sides so as to 
relieve the front drivers of their load. The drivers must then 
be secured in such a way as will prevent their turning. 





§9 


BREAKDOWNS, 


143 


BROKEN MIDDLE SECTION OF SIDE HOD. 

119. In the event of the middle section of the side rod 
breaking, it will be necessary to take down all the side rods. 
If it is found that the front crankpin will not clear the cross¬ 
head key or the crosshead, swing the wheel in the manner 
described in the preceding article. With all the side rods 
down, only the main drivers will be in service, and it will be 
necessary to exercise care in opening the throttle. 


BROKEN BACK SECTION OF SIDE ROD. 

120 . If when the back section of a side rod breaks no 
other damage is done, it will only be necessary to remove that 
section and its mate. Then proceed, using the other sets 
of drivers. 

BROKEN TIRE ON FRONT DRIVING WHEEL. 

121 . When the tire on a front driver of a consolidation 
engine breaks, if no other damage is done, run that wheel up on 
a wedge about the height of the tire, and fit one block in place 
of the cellar and another below the driving box, as shown in 
Fig. 53. Then block between the top of the frame and the 
spring saddle in order to relieve that driving box of the weight 
it carried. This method of blocking will permit of the use of 
all springs. 

If the second pair of drivers are flangeless, care must be exer¬ 
cised in rounding curves to prevent that pair of drivers leaving 
the track, as on short curves the truck may swing the front end 
of the engine far enough to allow the wheels with the blind 
tires to drop off the rails. The driver brake should be cut 
out, and if the front section of the side rod is not damaged 
sufficiently to cause its removal, it may remain up. 


BROKEN TIRE ON SECOND DRIVER. 

122 . Should the tire on the second driver of a consolidation 
engine break, run that wheel up on a wedge about the thickness 
of the tire, and block as shown in Fig. 54. This gives the use 
of all the springs, which is an advantage. Cut out the driver 
brake and proceed. 







J 





Fig. 




























































































































































































§9 


BREAKDOWNS. 


145 


It will not be necessary to take down the side rods unless 
they are damaged in such a way as to require their removal. 
In the event of the middle section being injured, all the side 
rods will have to come down and the driver brake must be cut 
out entirely, the engine being brought in by means of the main 
drivers only. In the event of the side rods coming down, care 
should be taken to see that the front crankpin clears the cross¬ 
head sufficiently to be safe; if it does not, that set of wheels 
should be swung as previously explained. 


BROKEN TIRE ON THIRD, OR MAIN, DRIVER. 

123. In case the tire on the main driver breaks, if no 
other damage is done, run that driver up on a wedge until it is 
about the thickness of the tire above the rail, then block it in 
this position, as shown in Fig. 55. Also block between the top 
of the frame and the spring saddle, as shown. By this means 
all the springs are in use. Cut out the driver brake, but 
do not take down the-side rods unless they are so injured as 
to require it. 

BROKEN TIRE ON BACK DRIVER. 

124. If no other damage is done, whenever the back tire 
breaks, run that wheel up on a wedge and block as indicated 
in Fig. 56. Then cut out the driver brake, as in previous 
cases, and proceed. However, should the second and main 
tires be blind, chain around the tail-piece of the engine frame 
on the disabled side and pass the chain up and across to the 
opposite side and secure it to the front corner of the tender 
frama wedging it there as tightly as possible, so as to cause it 
to crowd the flange of the rear driver against the rail. In this 
event, the engine should be run cautiously, especially on curves 
and through frogs and switches. 


BROKEN FRONT DRIVING AXLE. 

125. When the front driving axle breaks outside of the 
driving box, it is necessary to remove the front section of side 
rods. When an engine is fitted with the alligator type of 
crosshead, it is a rather difficult matter to dispose of the 





















































































































































































BREAKDOWNS. 


147 


driver that is broken. To do this, remove the main rod 
on the disabled side and push the crosshead forwards in order 
to give as much space as possible between the guide yoke and 
the end of the crosshead, and thus allow more freedom in 
working the wheel out of the way. To assist in disposing of 
the wheel, cut off the ends of two or three ties and dig below 
them, so that when the wheel is pried off the rail and allowed 
to drop into the hole, it can be worked out from under the 
guides. After the wheel is removed, jack up the broken end 
of the axle until it is in its usual position, and then block 
between the bottom of the driving box and pedestal brace, 
so as to carry the box in this position, and block between the 
top of the frame and the spring saddle in order to relieve 
the box of its weight. Cut out the driver brake and connect 
up the main rod again on the disabled side of the engine. 

If the crankpin on the opposite side does not clear the cross¬ 
head, the wheel should be swung clear of the track and carried 
there with the pin on the top quarter, and the wheel should be 
secured in this position so that it cannot turn. If the second 
and third drivers are fitted with blind tires, great care must be 
taken when going around curves in order that the wheels with 
the blind tires may not drop off the rails. 


BROKEN AXLE ON SECOND DRIVING WHEEL. 

126. In case the axle on the second driver breaks outside 
of the box, it will be necessary to remove all side rods. Remove 
the main rod on the disabled side so as to make it easier to 
remove the driver, after which the main rod may be connected 
up again. Before doing this, however, jack the broken end of 
the axle into position and block between the bottom of the 
box and the pedestal 1 brace to hold the axle in this position; 
also, block between the top of the frame and the spring saddle 
to relieve the box of its load. The driver brake should be 
cut out. 

If this pair of drivers is fitted with blind tires having no 
collars on the axle, it will be necessary to also swing the wheel 
on the opposite side, as otherwise there will be nothing to keep 



148 


BREAKDOWNS. 


§9 


that wheel on the rail. The wheel may be swung up and 
carried as already described, and it should be firmly chained to 
prevent its working out far enough for the crankpin to catch 
the main rod and thus cause further damage. The engine may 
then proceed by using the main drivers only. 


BROKEN THIRD, OR MAIN, AXLE. 

127. In case the third, or main, driving axle breaks, it is 
hard to say just how much damage will result. Should no 
other damage be done, however, all the side rods and the main 
rod on the disabled side must be taken down. Block the cross¬ 
head securely, disconnect the valve rod, and clamp the valve 
in mid-position so as to cover the steam ports to the cylinder, 
then remove the broken-off wheel, jack up the broken end of 
the journal to position, and block below the bottom of the 
box and the pedestal brace, in order to carry the journal 
in this position. Also, block between the top of the frame 
and the spring saddle, to relieve the box of the weight it 
carried. If the main wheels have blind tires and no collar 
on the axle, it will be necessary also to swing the main wheel 
on the opposite side. To do this, remove the main rod on the 
other side of the engine and clamp the valve in mid-position on 
its seat; then raise the driver until the box is at the top of the 
jaws and block it in this position, as already described; then 
chain the wheel securely to the frame, so as to prevent it 
working out. In this case both the main drivers are out of 
service and it will be necessary to have the engine towed to 
the shop. If time is valuable and it is an object to clear 
the main line as soon as possible, the eccentrics and links 
may be left up and the engine must be run or towed carefully 
in order to avoid further damage. As in all other cases of 
broken axle, the driver brake must be cut out of service. 

On many engines, the eccentrics are placed on the second 
driving axle while the main rod is connected to the third pair 
of drivers. In this case, anything that will cause the side rods 
to be taken down will render the engine entirely helpless and it 
will have to be towed to the shop. 





§9 


BREAKDOWNS. 


149 


BROKEN BACK DRIVING AXLE. 

128. When the back driving axle breaks, if no other 
damage is done, remove both back sections of the side rods, 
jack the broken end of the journal up level and fasten it there 
by blocking between the bottom of the box and the pedestal 
brace, as has been described in previous articles. 

If the firebox extends over the frame and the springs between 
the pedestal jaws under the top frame rail, pry up the back end 
of the spring as high as possible, and block it there, even if it is 
necessary to disconnect the front end of the back equalizer to do 
so. If the springs and equalizers are above the frame, the 
block should be placed between the top of the frame and 
the spring saddle; the object in both cases is to relieve the 
box of the weight it carries. Should the second and third 
drivers have blind tires, it will be necessary to chain around the 
tail-piece of the engine frame on the disabled side, and then 
pass the chain across to the opposite side and secure it to the 
front corner of the tender frame, wedging it there as tightly 
as possible, so as to crowd the engine over against the flanged 
driver. Before proceeding, cut out the driver brake and run 
cautiously, especially on curves, and look out that the flange 
does not lead into frogs and switches. 

In running backwards, if it is necessary to go around very 
sharp curves, it may be well to use a wedge in addition to the 
chain already mentioned; the wedge being placed between the 
tank and the engine at such times as the flanged wheel is on 
the inside of the curve. Care must be taken, however, not to 
get the wedge in too tight, as that will have a tendency to crowd 
the tender off the track. 

BROKEN FRONT DRIVING SPRING. 

129. In case of a broken front driving spring on an engine 
having a spring rigging like that shown in Fig. 57, the cross¬ 
equalizer will drop down on the frames; in that event, jack up 
the back end of the long truck equalizer and block between the 
top of the frame and the bottom of the cross-equalizer on the 
end next to the broken spring, so as to hold the back end of 
the truck equalizer in its proper position. Next run the second 




Fig. 58. 

























































































































































































§9 


BREAKDOWNS. 


151 


driver up on a wedge to raise the frame to its proper height 
above the front driving box, and block between the top of the 
front driving box and the frame in order to make the front 
driver carry its share of the load. 


BROKEN SECOND DRIVING SPRING. 

130. Whenever the second driving spring breaks, place a 
block between the top of the front driving box and the frame, 
as shown in Fig. 58, so as to take up the play, and run this 
driver up on a wedge sufficiently high to raise the frame the 
proper height above the second driving box; then block 
between the top of the second driving box and the frame so 
as to make the second driver carry its share of the weight. 
Next pry up the front end of the front equalizer to its normal 
position and block between this end and the frame in order 
to hold it in that position. This will permit of the use of all 
the springs except the broken one, and the engine will ride 
rigidly on the second driver on the disabled side. The 
front driver should be run off the wedge and the block 
removed from between its driving box and the top frame 
before proceeding. 

BROKEN CROSS-SPRING ON BROOKS CONSOLIDATION ENGINE. 

131. A broken cross-spring on a Brooks consolidation 
engine will allow the front end of the engine to settle upon the 
driving boxes until the pilot rests on the rails; also, a greater 
strain will be thrown on the springs and journals back of the 
broken spring, which will have a tendency to cause the journals 
to heat. To block up for an accident of this kind, proceed as 
follows: First block on top of the pony-truck frame hangers 
directly under the frame of the engine, then run the truck 
wheels up on wedges sufficiently high to level the engine; next, 
place a block between the top of each front driving box and the 
frame so as to carry the engine rigidly on the front drivers; 
then run the truck wheels off the wedges and run the front 
driving wheels up on thinner ones, so as to permit the removal 
of the blocks from between the pony-truck frame hangers and 






152 


BREAKDOWNS. 


9 


the engine frame; jack up the back end of the truck equalizer 
sufficiently high to put a portion of the weight of the engine on 
the truck, and chain it in position to a short piece of rail or a 
tie placed across the top of the frames in such a position as not 
to rest on the brake cylinders. The front wheel may then be 
run off the wedges and the engine is ready to proceed, the 
weight of the front end of the engine being carried on the front 
driving wheels and the trucks, as before the cross-spring was 
broken. The equalizer extending from the guide yoke to the 
back end of the truck equalizer will not require any attention, 
as it will carry on the guide yoke and front hangers, or connect¬ 
ing bar, between the driving brake cylinders; the brake rigging 
should be disconnected before the engine is raised, but it may 
be connected up again and can be used with safety. 


BROKEN LONG TRUCK EQUALIZER. 

132. In the event of a long truck equalizer on a consolida¬ 
tion engine breaking, proceed in exactly the same manner as 
when that equalizer breaks on a mogul engine, as explained in 
Art. 72. 


BROKEN FRONT PIN OF TRUCK EQUALIZER. 

133. In the event of the front pin of the long truck 
equalizer breaking, proceed as you would in the case of this 
pin breaking on a mogul engine, as described in Art. 75 . 





Compound Locomotives 


DESCRIPTION, OPERATION, AND 
OPERATING. 

GENERAL DISCUSSION. 

DEFINITIONS. 

1. A compound engine is one in which steam is first 
admitted to one cylinder and expanded, after which it is 
exhausted into another and larger cylinder, in which it acts on 
a second piston, and is expanded again; the steam is thus 
expanded more than it would be if used in but one cylinder. 
The smaller cylinder into which the steam is first admitted is 
called the high-pressure cylinder, since it is operated by 
high-pressure steam direct from the boiler. The steam that is 
admitted to the second or larger cylinder has had its pressure 
reduced considerably by expansion; hence, the larger cylinder 
is called the low-pressure cylinder on -account of its being 
operated by steam of a lower pressure than that used in the 
smaller cylinder. An engine that has only one cylinder in 
which to expand the steam is said to be a single-exjmnsion, 
or simple, engine. The ordinary standard locomotive con¬ 
sists of two simple engines. An engine that has two cylinders 
in which to expand the steam, one of which discharges into 
the other, is said to be a double-expansion, or compound, 
engine. Some engines have three or even four cylinders, in 
which the steam is expanded as many times as there .are 
cylinders; but, while these, strictly speaking, are compound 

§10 



2 


COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 


10 


engines, they are not called by that name, but are distin¬ 
guished from the double-expansion engine by the names 
triple expansion and quadruple expansion , respectively, common 
usage applying the name of compound to the double-expansion 
engine only. 

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN COMPOUND AND SIMPLE 
LOCOMOTIVES. 

2. Compound locomotives, as used in this country, are of 
the double-expansion types, and have either one or two two- 
cylinder engines, depending on the make of the locomotive. 
Those of the two-cylinder type have a cylinder placed on either 
side, like a simple locomotive, the high-pressure cylinder 
exhaust passage being connected to the low-pressure cylinder 
steam chest by means of a receiver placed in the extended front 
end. Those of the fodr-cylinder type have a compound engine 
on either side; that is, there is a high-pressure and a low-pres¬ 
sure cylinder on each side of the locomotive, the two cylinders 
on a side being connected by the proper passages made in 
the cylinder saddle. The general construction of a compound 
locomotive is practically the same as that of a standard simple 
locomotive; in the four-cylinder types, however, there is a 
difference in the arrangement of the cylinders, pistons, cross¬ 
heads, and valves; but the boiler, frames, truck wheels, driving 
wheels, and valve gear are the same as those of a simple 
locomotive. 


ADVANTAGES OF THE COMPOUND. 

3. Adaptability to Different Classes of Service. 
The advantages of the compound over the simple engine depend 
to a considerable extent on the class of service; in general, the 
greatest economy will be obtained when the work is hardest and 
most constant, and the speed moderate. As the load decreases 
and the speed increases, the economy of the compound 
decreases, until, at a point approaching light road service and 
high speed, the compound will show no economy over the 
simple engine. The compound wdll probably show to the best 
advantage in heavy freight service on level divisions where the 





10 


COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 


3 


engine can be loaded to its most economical point on both the 
out- and in-trips. Compounds, as a rule, do not “drift” as 
easily as simple engines; when running on a down grade with 
steam shut off, the pistons (especially the low-pressure pistons) 
act as air compressors, which not only makes the engine “ride 
hard,” but sends a strong jet of air through the stack, thus 
producing a draft through the fire at a time when no steam and 
practically no draft is required. The consequence is that 
considerable coal is wasted while drifting, and the efficiency of 
compounds is reduced considerably at such times. It is due to 
this loss in efficiency while drifting that a compound is not as 
economical on hilly as on level divisions. Another reason is 
that an engine can only save coal during the time coal is being 
used, so that, if steam is worked throughout the whole run 
on both the in- and the out-trips, the compound will make a 
better showing than it will if steam is only worked during a 
part of each trip. 

The compound is advantageous in heavy fast passenger 
service also, and especially so on the very fast trains. The prob¬ 
able reason for this is that such service requires so much power 
that the boiler of the simple engine is overtaxed, and, to supply 
the necessary steam, it must work at a very wasteful rate of 
combustion; whereas the compound, which requires less steam 
to do the work, generates steam at a much less rate—hence 
with greater economy. Also, when necessary, the compound 
can be forced and made to generate considerably more steam; 
hence, it has a greater power capacity than the simple engine. 
However, on a lighter run at the same speed, in which the 
simple engine will not have to be worked below its most 
economical point of cut-off, the advantages of the compound 
will be much less. In very light passenger service, where a, 
locomotive is either working steam very light or is drifting a 
considerable portion of the time, the economy of the compound 
is very much decreased. 

4 . Other Advantages. —In addition to the saving of 
fuel, the compound has other advantages over the simple 
engine. Since it does its work with less steam than the simple 


4 


COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 


§10 


engine, it necessarily must use less coal and less water. The 
saving in water is a very decided advantage, especially in 
localities where the supply of water is limited or where the 
water is bad. On account of using less water than the simple 
engine, it is often possible for a compound to make a longer 
run between supplies—to avoid taking bad water that would 
cause foaming. Also, by using the good water only, less 
sediment will collect in the boiler, which, consequently, will 
steam more freely, and the boiler can be run for a longer 
period of time without being washed out. Further, with a 
given quality of water, good or bad, the amount of sediment 
in the boiler of a compound locomotive will be less than in the 
boiler of a simple one, because the compound evaporates, and 
hence uses, less water in doing the same amount of work. 

5. The compound has still another advantage over the 
simple locomotive, because in times of emergency it can be 
made to increase its (compound) tractive force 25 to 30 
per cent. In general practice it is customary to make this 
maximum tractive power of compound (when working as 
such) and of simple locomotives about 22 per cent, of the 
adhesive weight (the weight on the rails under the drivers), in 
order that all weather and rail conditions may be met without 
causing excessive slipping. The maximum tractive force of 
the simple engine cannot be varied, but that of the compound 
can. The tractive force of some compounds is increased by 
admitting live steam at a reduced pressure into the low- 
pressure cylinders; while in other types of compounds it is 
increased by converting the locomotive into a simple locomotive 
for the time being, the high-pressure exhaust going directly to 
the atmosphere, and live steam at a reduced pressure being 
admitted to the low-pressure cylinder. This, in some cases, 
will increase the power of the locomotive 25 or 30 per cent. 
Of course, this increased power is not to be used under ordinary 
conditions, but only in emergencies, such as in starting a very 
heavy train, or when in danger of stalling on a grade. It is 
found that the adhesion between the drivers and the rails 
increases considerably under certain conditions; for example, 



§10 


COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 


5 


on a sharp curve up grade, where the outer rail is higher than 
the inner, the wheel flanges will press against the inner rail and 
increase the adhesion to such an extent that the tractive power 
can be run up to 30 per cent., or more, of the adhesive weight 
without danger of slipping the wheels. At such times the 
compound can utilize its reserve power, and will thus be able 
to haul a load during that time that would stall a correspond¬ 
ing simple engine. Also, at very slow speed on heavy grades, 
the compound will keep a train moving where a simple loco¬ 
motive will slip and stall. This is due to the fact that the 
pressure on the crankpins of the compound is more uniform 
throughout the stroke than is the case with the simple 
locomotive. 


HOW ECONOMY IS EFFECTED. 

6. Object of Compounding.— The principal object of 
compounding locomotives is to effect a saving in fuel; to do 
this, the compound must use less coal than a simple loco¬ 
motive doing the same work. The economy of the compound 
locomotive is due, first , to the higher steam pressures that can 
be used advantageously; second , to reduced cylinder conden¬ 
sation; third , to greater expansion of the steam, the initial 
pressure often being 200 pounds, while the exhaust steam 
escapes at a pressure that is only sufficient to maintain a proper 
draft through the fire; and fourth , to a slower rate of com¬ 
bustion in the firebox. Of course, since the compound and 
simple locomotives are being compared for fuel economy, 
everything that will effect that economy must be considered; 
in other words, both the boiler and engine must be considered. 

7. Iligli Pressures.— Both the size and the weight of the 
simple locomotive have been increased greatly within the last 
few years, and the construction and quality of the material used 
have been improved so as to permit the use of steam at higher 
pressures. This has had the result of raising the pressure from 
120 or 130 pounds to 160 or 180 pounds; but, owing to the 
limitations of its stroke, cut-off, and rate of expansion, 
the simple engine is unable to fully realize the advantages of 




6 


COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 


10 


pressures above that amount. In fact, it is found in practice 
that the economy of a simple engine using steam at 180 pounds 
is as great as, if not greater than, when using steam at 200 
pounds. Of course, increasing the boiler pressure increases the 
power of an engine, but, on the other hand, since the rate of 
expansion remains the same, the pressure at which the exhaust 
steam escapes to the atmosphere, and also the back pressure 
in the cylinders, increases also; hence, the amount of heat 
wasted increases with the pressure, so that no advantage is 
gained by increasing the pressure above a certain point. If 
greater expansion could be obtained without increasing the 
cylinder condensation, greater economy would result, but this 
is not possible with the simple engine. 

8. Cylinder Condensation.— With compound locomo¬ 
tives, it is possible to use pressures of 200 pounds or more, and 
reduce both the cylinder condensation and the exhaust pressure; 
hence, greater economy can be obtained with compounds by 
using steam of higher pressure. Condensation is less, for the 
reason that the steam is expanded in two cylinders instead of in 
one, as in the simple engine; hence, the range of pressure 
and consequent range of temperature in either cylinder of the 
compound is very much less than it is in the cylinder of a 
simple engine. The amount of condensation that will take 
place depends on the difference between the temperature of the 
cylinder walls at admission and the temperature of the entering 
steam; and, since this difference is very much less in the com¬ 
pound than in the simple engine, it follows that the condensa¬ 
tion will be less in the compound. 

9. Increased Expansion. —The reduction in the exhaust 
pressure is brought about by expanding the steam considerably 
more than is done in the simple engine. The exhaust pressure 
of a simple engine using high-pressure steam is so high as to be 
very wasteful, whereas the exhaust pressure of a compound 
is no higher than is necessary to maintain the proper draft 
through the fire. The high exhaust pressure of the simple 
engine represents a waste of considerable power; the com¬ 
pound, on the other hand, by expanding the steam to a much 




§10 


COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 


7 


lower pressure, saves a great deal of power that is wasted 
in the simple engine; therefore, it can do the work with less 
steam, and hence will require less coal and water. 

10. Slower Rate of Combustion.— Assume two loco¬ 
motives, one simple and the other compound, but both of 
the same size and type: The boilers will have equal heating 
and grate surfaces, and should therefore be equally econom¬ 
ical for like rates of combustion; but since, owing to its 
increased rate of expansion and decreased cylinder condensa¬ 
tion, the compound locomotive requires less steam than the 
simple locomotive, its rate of combustion will be less. This 
not only means that the compound locomotive requires less 
coal, but that the coal used is burned at a slower, and con¬ 
sequently more economical, rate. A number of experiments 
conducted by Prof. W. F. M. Goss, of Purdue University, 
demonstrated that, when coal (Brazil block) was burned at 
the rate of 50 pounds per square foot of grate surface per hour, 
8J pounds of water were evaporated for each pound of coal 
used; while, when the rate was increased to 180 pounds of 
coal per square foot of grate, only 5-J pounds of water were 
evaporated per pound of coal—a loss of about 35.3 per cent. 
Of course, strictly speaking, the above relationship between the 
water evaporated and the coal burned applies to the boiler 
from which the relationship was determined, but all locomotive 
boilers may be expected to give the same general result; that 
is, the values may vary some, but they will be in the same 
general proportion. 

11. Milder Exhaust. —The milder exhaust of the com¬ 
pound is in several respects more advantageous than the 
stronger exhaust of a simple locomotive. In the first place, 
the heating surfaces of the boiler absorb heat from the gaseous 
products of combustion as they pass on their way to the stack, 
and the slower the velocity of the gases, the greater will be the 
amount of heat surrendered, and the less will be the amount 
carried away as waste heat; hence, the milder exhaust and 
slower rate of combustion of the compound cause more of the 



8 


COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 


§10 

heat of the gases to be delivered to the water, and less to be 
lost in the waste gases. Also, a thinner fire can be carried, 
which still further insures better combustion of the coal. 

There is still another advantage, in that less unconsumed 
fuel is carried through the tubes into the smokebox, and 
thence out of the stack. This not only represents an actual 
saving in fuel, but also greatly diminishes the chances of fires 
along the roadway, due to live sparks alighting on inflammable 
material. In some experiments conducted by Professor Goss, 
it was found that, while the rate of combustion for a simple 
locomotive was varied from 64 to 241 pounds of coal per square 
foot of grate surface, the spark losses ranged between 4.3 and 
15.5 per cent, of the coal fired. 


DEGREE OF ECONOMY EFFECTED. 

12. It can no longer be doubted that the compound 
locomotive, when assigned to the proper class of service, is 
much more economical, both in fuel and in water, than the 
simple locomotive in the same service. Carefully kept records 
of competitive long-service tests in both passenger and freight 
service—during which compound and simple locomotives were 
compared that were as nearly alike in weight, boiler capacity, 
steam pressure, and general design as possible—show that, in 
the right class of service, compound locomotives, when properly 
handled, effect a saving in fuel of from 15 to 25 per cent., and 
a saving in water of about 15 per cent. Many long-service 
tests on different roads throughout the country seem to show 
that the cost of running repairs of the latest improved types of 
compounds is nearly, if not quite, as low as the running repairs 
of simple engines in the same service. For instance, the cost 
of running repairs, together with the mileage made between 
April 1, 1897, and September 30, 1898, for compound and 
simple locomotives on the Northern Pacific Railway, is shown 
in the following Table.* The last column on the right shows 
the average cost of repairs per 1,000 gross-ton-miles. 


* Edwin M. Herr, Proceedings of the Western Railway Club. 





§10 


COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 


9 


EARLY FAILURES. 

13. Considerable trouble was experienced with some of 
the earlier forms of compounds; the cost of maintenance was 
not only higher than that of a simple engine, but the liability 
of the compound to failure, on account of breaking down, made 
its performance unsatisfactory. The failures, however, were not 
generally due to trouble with the purely compound features— 
namely, the intercepting and separate exhaust valves (when 
present), the receiver in the two-cylinder type, and the large 


Locomotives. 

1 Locomotive 
Miles. 

Gross-Ton - 
Miles. 

Repairs per 
Locomotive 
Mile. 

Repairs 
per 1,000 Gross- 
Ton-Miles. 

Compound A . . 

i 56,886 

42,146,900 

$ .0161 

$ .0217 

Compound B . . 

60,234 

49,070,628 

.0154 

.0182 

Compound C . . 

I 54,497 

42,404,236 

.0154 

.0198 

Compound D . . 

51,248 

40,544,366 

.0121 

.0153 

Simple 507.... 

52,915 

31,400,344 

.0166 

.0280 

Simple 520. . . . 

63,234 

38,163,393 

.0120 

.0198 

Simple 566 .... 

52,738 

34,612,835 

.0184 

.0284 


low-pressure cylinder—but were due to trouble with parts that 
are. common to both simple and compound locomotives. That 
is, most cases of failure were due to broken frames, cylinders, 
piston rods, or valve gear, or to unequal wear on the two sides 
of the engine, or to cut or badly worn high-pressure steam 
valves. These defects in the compound were clearly charge¬ 
able to faulty design, poor construction, or improper care in 
maintenance, and by studying the causes of failure and 
remedying such defects as developed during operation, the 
weak places have gradually been strengthened until at the 
present time the cost of running repairs is quite satisfactory. 


PROMINENT TYPES. 

14. The Different Systems. —There are only two types 
of compounds that are used to any extent in this country; 
namely, the four-cylinder compound and the two- 
cylinder compound. Of the four-cylinder compounds 




















10 


COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 


§10 


there is only one system—namely, the Baldwin (Vauclain) 
that is used to any extent. The principal two-cylinder types 
in use are the Richmond, the Schenectady, and the Pittsburg. 
There is also the Baldwin two-cylinder type. 

15. Baldwin (Vauclain). —This compound is known as 
the Vauclain compound, so called after its inventor, Mr. Samuel 
M. Vauclain. It has two cylinders—one low pressure and one 
high pressure—on each side, arranged one above the other in 
the same vertical plane, and it is called a non-receiver, or 
continuous-expansion, compound, from the fact that each 
high-pressure cylinder exhausts directly into the low-pressure 
cylinder that is on the same side of this engine. The area of 
the low-pressure piston is about three times that of the high- 
pressure piston. 

1 6. Richmond (Mellin). —This compound was invented 
by Mr. C. J. Mellin. It has two cylinders, one on either side, 
the exhaust passage from the high-pressure cylinder being con¬ 
nected with the steamway to the low-pressure cylinder by 
means of a large reservoir or receiver placed in the smokebox. 
In other words, the high-pressure exhaust steam must cross 
over from one side to the other in passing from the high- 
pressure into the low-pressure cylinder; hence this type is 
often called a cross-over, or cross-compound, type. It is 
also often called a receiver compound, to distinguish it from 
types that have no receiver. This system has an intercepting 
valve in the cylinder saddle, and is provided with a separate 
exhaust passage for the high-pressure cylinder exhaust, for 
use during the time the engine is working simple. It is 
known as an automatic system for the reason that, when start¬ 
ing compound, the intercepting and reducing valves auto¬ 
matically move to simple position for a revolution or two, or 
until the receiver is charged to pressure, when they automat¬ 
ically return to compound position. The area of the low- 
pressure piston is about two and one-half times that of the 
high-pressure piston. 

The capacity of the receiver used in cross-compound loco¬ 
motives varies with the make of the locomotive. It is based 





§10 


COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 


11 


on the capacity of the high-pressure cylinder, and in some 
makes it has from two to three times the capacity of that 
cylinder, while in others it lias from three to four times the 
capacity. Generally, large receivers give less variation in 
receiver pressure, and hence are conducive to economy; while 
for good working, the receiver capacity should not be less than 
twice the capacity of the high-pressure cylinder. 

17 . Schenectady (Pitkin).— The Schenectady com¬ 
pound, invented by Mr. A. J. Pitkin, is also of the two- 
cylinder cross-compound type; it has an intercepting valve, 
and is provided with a separate exhaust port for the exhaust 
of the high-pressure steam during the time the engine is working 
simple. The Schenectady, like the Richmond, is automatic in 
its action, and its low-pressure piston has about two and one- 
half times the area of the high-pressure piston. 

18 . Pittsburg (Colvin). —This compound is also of the 
cross-compound type, and has an intercepting valve and a 
separate exhaust passage for the high-pressure exhaust. It is 
strictly non-automatic, however; that is, the intercepting valve 
must be moved from one position to another by the engineer. 

19 . Baldwin Two-Cylinder.— This compound, only 
recently introduced, is provided with an intercepting and 
a separate exhaust valve, and is of the cross-compound auto¬ 
matic type. 

BALDWIN (YAUCLAIN) SYSTEM. 


DESCRIPTION. 

20 . General Arrangement. — The Vauclain com¬ 
pound locomotive consists of two compound engines, one 
on either side; the two cylinders A and R, the valve chamber (7, 
and a half saddle, being cast in one piece (Figs. 1 and 2). 
The arrangement of the cylinders and valve bush in the saddle 
depends on whether the front part or rail of the frames is 
made with single or double bars; if, as in eight- and ten¬ 
wheeled locomotives, the rail is made of a single bar, the 



12 COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. § 10 

arrangement used will be that shown in Fig. 1; but if the 
rails are double, as in mogul, consolidation, and decapod 
locomotives, the arrangement will be that shown in Fig. 2. 
It will be observed that, whatever the arrangement, the one 
cylinder is directly above the other—their center lines being 
in the same vertical plane—and the valve chamber C, which 
takes the place of the steam chest, is situated between the 
cylinders and the smokebox, as close to the cylinders as con¬ 
venient, in order that the steamways leading to the cylinders 
may be as short as possible. The smaller cylinder A is called 
the higlL-ipressure cylinder, for the reason that steam is 
admitted to it directly from the boiler and at nearly boiler 



Fjg. l. Fig. 2. 

pressure. The steam is allowed to expand in this cylinder, 
thereby having its pressure reduced to a greater or less extent, 
and is then discharged into the larger cylinder B, called the 
low-pressure cylinder, on account of its being operated by 
steam of much lower pressure than that used in the cylinder A. 
The steam is expanded still further in the low-pressure 
cylinder, and is then discharged into the atmosphere through 
the exhaust in the usual manner. 

The pistons that operate within the two cylinders are con¬ 
nected to the same crosshead, an illustration of which is given 
in Fig. 3. The piston rods r and q are made of equal diameter, 
and with a shoulder s on the crosshead end to prevent the rod 
from being forced into the crosshead; also, by the use of this 
























§10 


COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 


13 


shoulder, the end that enters the crosshead can be made of equal 
diameter with the body of the rod, thus greatly strengthening 
the rod at the crosshead. The holes made in the crosshead 
to receive the piston-rod ends are tapered to insure a perfect fit, 
and are .bored in such a manner as to insure the rods being 



perfectly parallel to each other. The rods are secured to the 
crosshead by means of large nuts n, n, and these, in turn, are 
prevented from coming loose by taper keys through the ends 
of the rods. 

21. The Piston Valves. —The valve employed to dis¬ 
tribute the steam to the cylinders is of the piston type, and 
works within the valve chamber C. In reality, it is a double 
valve, and, by its peculiar construction (being hollow), is 
enabled to do the work of two valves; that is, it controls the 
admission of steam to, and the exhaust of steam from, both 
the high- and the low-pressure cylinders. A perspective view 
of this piston valve is given in Fig. 4, Fig. 5 being a cross- 
sectional view of the valve in the vhlve chamber, showing the 










14 


COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 


§10 


interior of the valve and the cavities in the casting surrounding 
the valve bush. As will be seen, the valve is fitted with two 
pairs of cast-iron packing rings at either end, which constitute 
the edges of the valve. The rings on the outer heads a and d 



Fig. 4. 


control the admission of steam to, and the exhaust of steam 
from, the high-pressure cylinder, while the rings on the heads b 
and c perform the same duties for the low-pressure cylinder. 
The two end heads a and d, Fig. 5, are made solid, while the 
two inner heads b and c, together with that part of the valve 
between them, are hollow and are secured to the outer heads by 



several ribs e. The slots /, / between the heads a, b , and c, d, 
are thus connected through the inner cavity of the valve V. 
The valve stem p passes clear through the valve, and is held 
in position by the shoulder s and the nut n. 


























































































§10 


COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 


15 


22. Movement of Piston Valve. —When the cylinders 
are arranged as in Fig. 1, with the low-pressure cylinder under¬ 
neath, a rocker is used to transmit the motion of the eccentrics 



Fig. 6. 




Fig. 7. 

















































16 


COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 


§10 


to the valve; but when the low-pressure cylinder is on top, as 
in Fig. 2, the upper bar of the frame prevents the use of a 
rocker, and the valve gear must then be made direct-acting. 
The method most commonly used to transmit the motion of 
the eccentrics to the valve, when a double front rail is used, 
consists of a small crosshead and guides, Fig. 6, together with 
a valve stem that connects the valve with the crosshead, and a 
valve rod to connect the crosshead with the- link. When a 
direct-acting valve mechanism (without a rocker) is used, the 
eccentrics must be placed on the driving axle as shown in 
Fig. 7 (a), view (6) showing the position of the eccentrics on 
the driving axle relatively to the main pin when a rocker is 
used. It will be noticed that, when no rocker is used, the 
eccentric rods are crossed when the engine is on the forward 
center, and the rod of the upper eccentric is connected to the 
bottom of the link; when a rocker is used, however, the rods 
are not crossed, and the said rod is connected to the top of 
the link. 


23. Valve Bush. —In order that the steam may be 
properly distributed to the steam cylinders, it is necessary that 
the port openings in the steam chest (valve chamber (7) be 



machined accurately to the required sizes. Now, since it 
would be both difficult and costly to machine the passages in 
the cylinder castings themselves, they are made larger than 
required for the finished ports, and the steam chest is bored out 
sufficiently larger in diameter than the diameter of the valve to 
permit the use of a bushing similar to that shown in Fig. 8. 
This bushing is made of hard cast iron, and is forced into the 
steam chest under pressure, so as to make steam-tight joints 




















Fig. 9. 





















































































































































































































































































































































































§10 


COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 


17 


between the ports, thus preventing leakage of steam from one 
steam passage to another. All the ports in the bushing can be 
machined with great accuracy, so that a uniform distribution of 
steam is made to the cylinders under all conditions. 

24. Steam Chest. —In Fig. 9 is shown a perspective view 
of the cylinders and saddle of a Vauclain compound, in which 
a section through the steam chest and high- and low-pressure 
cylinders is taken on the dotted lines xy , Fig. 1, the upper 
part being removed to show the interior of the steam chest and 
cylinders. V is the piston valve, v its stem, R and Q the high- 
pressure and low-pressure pistons, respectively, and r and q 
their rods. As will be seen, there are a number of chambers 
cast in the saddle that extend completely around the valve 
bushing. The steam pipe E connects with a steamway (in the 
cylinder saddle) that divides into two branches; the end of one 
branch forms chamber g , while the end of the other forms 
chamber l , both of which surround the valve bush. Steam 
pipe D supplies, steam to the right-hand cylinders. Chamber k 
is the steam-chest end of the steam passage w that leads to the 
front end of the high-pressure cylinder A, while chamber h is 
the end of the other steam passage x that leads to the back end 
of the cylinder. The chambers j and i are the steam-chest 
ends of the steam passages y and z that lead to the front and 
back ends, respectively, of the low-pressure cylinder B. Cham¬ 
ber S forms the steam-chest end of the exhaust steamway (in 
the cylinder saddle) that leads to, and connects with, the 
exhaust pipes P. It will thus be seen that steam from the 
boiler enters the steam chest through the end cavities g and l, 
so that, when the throttle is open, the two ends of the steam 
chest are filled with steam. Also, it will be seen that the 
steam must pass from the steam chest through chamber k or 
chamber h in order to get into the front or back ends of the 
high-pressure cylinder, respectively. Also, for steam to enter 
the front or back ends of the low-pressure cylinder, it must pass 
through chamber j or chamber respectively. Steam, in 
exhausting to the atmosphere from the lower-pressure cylinder, 
must pass out through the cavity S. Two relief valves m, m 




18 


COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 


§10 


are screwed into holes that lead to the passages j and i, and 
another valve is screwed into a hole n leading to the steamway 
in the cylinder saddle. The arrangement of the cylinders, 
steamways, and cavities in relation to the steam valve will 
be more clearly seen by referring to Fig. 10. 


OPERATION. 

25. Forward Stroke.— The views of the steam chest and 
cylinders in Figs. 10 and 11 are not true sectional views, but 



Fig. 10. 


are conventional views made up for the purpose of showing the 
relation of the high- and low-pressure cylinders to the steam 
valve, as well as the relation of the chambers h , i, j, etc. to the 
steamways w, x, y, and z that lead to the ends of the two 













































































§10 


COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 


19 


cylinders. Also, the operation of the engine can be more 
clearly shown by means of these figures. 

Suppose the engine to have been working for several revolu¬ 
tions, so that both cylinders are working steam; then the 
operation for the forward stroke, Fig. 10, will be as follows: 
With the valve in the position shown, steam from the steam 
chest enters the back end of the high-pressure cylinder A 
through chamber h and the steamway x, as indicated by the 
arrows, forcing the piston towards the front end of the cylinder. 
The steam in the front end of the high-pressure cylinder is 
exhausting through the steamway w , chamber k , cavity of 
valve Vj chamber i , and steamway z, into the back end of the 
low-pressure cylinder B , as indicated by the arrows, thus 
forcing the low-pressure piston towards the front end of its 
cylinder also. The exhaust, steam in the front end of the low- 
pressure cylinder is exhausting to the atmosphere through the 
passage y , chamber j, cavity of valve V , and the exhaust port S , 
as indicated. 

26. Backward Stroke. —In the backward stroke of the 
pistons, Fig. 11, the valve is admitting steam to the front end 
of the high-pressure cylinder, as shown, while the steam in the 
back end of the high-pressure cylinder is exhausting into the for¬ 
ward end of the low-pressure cylinder; hence, both pistons are 
being forced towards the back end of their cylinders. The 
exhaust steam in the back end of the low-pressure cylinder is 
passing through the steamway z, chamber i , and cavity of valve, 
into the exhaust passage S. By comparing Figs. 10 and 11, it 
will be seen that the high-pressure cylinder receives the steam 
directly from the boiler through the steam chest, while the 
low-pressure cylinder receives its supply of steam directly from 
the exhaust side of the high-pressure cylinder. In other words, 
the high-pressure cylinder receives steam from the boiler for a 
certain part of the stroke, allows it to expand practically for the 
remainder of the stroke, and then discharges it into the low- 
pressure cylinder, where it is still further expanded, after which 
it is discharged through the exhaust pipes in the usual manner. 
It is obvious that if this compound locomotive is started from 



20 


COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 


§10 


a state of rest while working compound, no steam can enter the 
low-pressure cylinders until after part of a revolution has been 
made by the drivers; hence, in that case, the duty of giving the 
train its first motion w'ould fall entirely on the high-pressure 
cylinders, while the low-pressure cylinders would lend abso¬ 
lutely no assistance at the very time their help was most 
needed. This would not only greatly reduce the starting power 



Fig. il. 


of the locomotive, but, with a heavy train, it would subject 
certain parts of the driving gear to such strains as would 
probably lead to breakdowns. To overcome this difficulty, it 
was found necessary to devise a means of admitting steam 
from the boiler directly into both the low-pressure and the 
high-pressure cylinders while starting the train; and the device 
by means of which this has been accomplished is known as the 
starting valve. 













































































10 


COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 


21 


27. General Arrangement of Starting-Valve Gear. 
The arrangement of the starting-valve gear is clearly shown 
in Fig. 12. The valve s is the starting valve, and it is con¬ 
nected by the pipe t to the two steam ways h and k (Fig. 11) 



that lead to the opposite ends of the high-pressure cylinder. 
This valve is merely a by-pass valve, and it is operated by the 
same lever L in the cab that operates the cylinder cocks n. 


28. Construction of Starting Valve. A sectional view 
of the starting valve is shown in Fig. 13. One end of the 
pipe t connects with the top opening IF; the other end con¬ 
nects with the side opening U, while the small opening N on 
the bottom leads to the atmosphere. When the handle H is 
pointing directly down, as in the figure, the valve is closed, 
since the plug of the valve blanks all the openings. When the 
handle is moved to the forward position, marked 1, the passage 
3 through the plug of the valve connects the port opening JV 
with port IF, while the passage 4 connects with port U; hence, 
there is a direct opening to the atmosphere through the pipe 5, 














22 


COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 


10 


while at the same time there is direct passage between the ports 
W and U' through the passages 3 and 4 . Thus, when in this 
position, the valve not only acts as a by-pass valve, but also as 
a cylinder cock for the high-pressure cylinder, since steam can 
pass from one pipe t to the other through the passages 3 and Jf 
in the plug of the valve, or from either pipe to the atmosphere 
through port N and pipe 5. 

When the handle of the valve is in the position marked 2 , the 
passage 4 in the plug connects with the port W, while the 



Fig. 13. 


passage 3 connects with the opening £7, and the port N leading 
to the atmosphere is blanked; hence, in this position the valve 
acts simply as a by-pass valve, allowing steam to pass through 
it and pipe t in either direction, but preventing any discharge of 
steam to the atmosphere through the port N. 

29. Operation of Starting Gear.— The operation of the 
starting gear can best be explained by referring to Fig. 14. 
If the cylinder casting, Fig. 1, were cut through on the line xz, 
and the right-hand portion were removed, then the remainder 














<100 



10 COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 23 


would show a section somewhat as in Fig. 14. The high- 
pressure cylinder A cannot be seen, as it is on the far side 
of the steam chest, but the back side of the low-pressure 
cylinder B can be seen. It will be observed that one end of 
the pipe t is screwed into a hole that is drilled into chamber k\ 
chamber &, it will be remembered, is one end of the steamway 
that leads to the front end of the high-pressure cylinder, and it 
opens also into the front end of the steam chest through the 


Fig. 14. 

ports in the valve bushing. The other end of the pipe t is 
screwed into a hole that is drilled into chamber h, thus making 
direct connection between this end of the pipe, the back end of 
the high-pressure cylinder, and the back end of the steam chest. 
Thus the two ends of the high-pressure cylinder can be con¬ 
nected through the starting valve. The handle H of the start¬ 
ing valve is connected to the same lever as is the mechanism 
that operates the cylinder cocks, and when the lever L is in 
its middle position i, the starting valve is closed. When the 
engine is operated with the starting valve in this position, 




























24 


COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 


10 


the engine is said to be working compound, since no live 
steam* enters the low-pressure cylinder. If the lever L is 
moved forwards to position 2, the handle H will be moved 
forwards also, and the starting valve and the cylinder cocks to 
both the high- and the low-pressure cylinders will be open, and 
live steam can pass to the low-pressure cylinder through the 
starting valve, as indicated by the arrows. The engine is then 
said to be working simple , since live steam enters the low- 
pressure cylinders. If lever L is moved to position 3, the 
handle will be moved to its back position; in this position, 
the cylinder cocks will be closed, but steam can still pass from 
the steam chest and high-pressure cylinder to the corresponding 
end of the low-pressure cylinders, as indicated by the arrows. 
For example, in the figure, the valve Is forward, and is admitting 
steam into the back end of the high-pressure cylinder through 
chamber h ; at the same time, steam passes from chamber h 
through the first part of pipe t , the starting valve s, and the 
second part of pipe t , into chamber k, and thence through 
the valve V and chamber i to the back end of the low-pressure 
cylinder, as indicated by the arrows. In this position of the 
starting valve, also, the engine is said to be working simple. 
It should be noted that, since live steam enters the cavity k, it 
is free to fill the front end of the high-pressure cylinder and 
to act therefore as back pressure on the high-pressure piston. 
This, of course, reduces considerably the force with which the 
high-pressure piston is moved forwards, but this is more than 
compensated for by the increase of total effective force on the 
low-pressure piston, due to its greater area. The latter has 
about three times the area of the high-pressure piston; hence, 
for every pound of force exerted as back pressure on the 
high-pressure piston, the live steam exerts an effective force of 
three pounds on the low-pressure piston, and the power of 
the engine is correspondingly increased. However, the start¬ 
ing valve should not be used except in emergencies, such 
as when starting a heavy train or when in danger of stalling 
on a grade. 


* Steam direct from the boiler. 





§10 


COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 


25 


30 . Relief Valves. —It is usual to supply the cylinders of 
locomotives with relief, or vacuum, valves, the duty of which 
is to prevent the formation of a vacuum in the cylinders that 
would draw in hot gases and cinders. Vauclain compounds 
are supplied with relief valves also, although they are situated 
differently from those on simple locomotives. As already 
remarked, a relief valve is screwed into the hole n (see Fig. 9) 
that leads to the steam way in the cylinder saddle; hence, if a 
vacuum tends to form in the steamway, or in the high-pressure 
steam chest or cylinder, this valve will open and admit air to 
prevent the formation of a vacuum. Also, the relief valves m, 
Figs. 9 and 14, are screwed into holes that lead 
to the cavities j and i, and help prevent the 
formation of a vacuum in the low-pressure 
cylinder. The low-pressure cylinders are also 
equipped with water-relief valves p, p, Fig. 14, 
attached to the front and back cylinder heads, 
to prevent the breaking of a cylinder head in 
case water should get into the cylinder. These 
water valves also act as safety valves to relieve 
excessive pressure of any kind, and they can 
be adjusted, by means of an adjusting screw, 
to open at any desired pressure. A sectional 
view of the water valve is given in Fig. 15. 

The end x screws into the steam chest, and 
when the pressure on the valve v becomes 
great enough to compress the spring s, the 
valve will open and allow the excess pressure 
to escape to the atmosphere through the open¬ 
ings a , a. The tension of the spring s can be regulated by 
means of the adjusting screw n. 

When an engine has the low-pressure cylinder on top, as in 
Fig. 2, a different arrangement must be adopted on the low- 
pressure cylinders, and a combined pressure and vacuum relief 
valve, similar to that shown in Fig. 16, is used, one in each 
head of the low-pressure cylinder. If a vacuum tends to form 
in the cylinder, air enters the valve through the air inlets at 
the bottom, and, raising the valve v , passes on to the cylinder 



Fig. 15. 


















26 


COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 


§10 


through y. Any excessive pressure in the cylinder will raise 
the valve x against the action of the spring and allow the excess 



Fig. 16. 


of pressure to escape through the openings a, a. The tension 
of the spring s can be regulated by means of the adjusting 
screw n. 


OPERATING. 

31. General Considerations. —Before an engineer can 
hope to become a successful runner of compound locomotives, 
he must learn, first of all, to handle the reverse lever properly. 
The quadrant of the reverse lever is always so made that it is 
impossible to cut off steam in the high-pressure cylinder at less 
than half stroke, and the reverse lever can be safely carried in 
any notch, from the corner to the half-stroke notch, without 
injury to the fire. This is due to the milder exhaust of the 
compound, which thus enables the fireman to carry a lighter 



































10 


COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 


27 


fire than he would with a single engine. Follow the old rule 
of carrying as light a fire as possible. 

32. Handling Cylinder-Cock Lever. —Then there is 
the proper handling of the starting device and cylinder cocks. 
It is a good rule, when handling compounds, to always open 
the cylinder cocks in starting the locomotive from a state of 
rest, so as to permit the water of condensation to escape from 
the cylinders. Of course, by opening the cylinder cocks, the 
starting valve is opened, and live steam is admitted to the low- 
pressure cylinder, causing the train to start quickly and 
smoothly. Sometimes, however, as when in a crowded station, 
it is undesirable to open the cylinder cocks, in which event the 
engineer should move the cylinder-cock lever backwards to the 
position for admitting steam to the low-pressure cylinder with¬ 
out opening the cylinder cocks. If the cylinder cocks arc 
opened in starting, they should be closed as soon as the cylin¬ 
ders are free of water, and, whatever the position of the 
cylinder-cock lever, it must be moved to compound position 
(middle position) before the reverse lever is moved from the 
corner. If necessary to open the cylinder cocks, when at full 
speed, to relieve the cylinders of water, it may be done without 
moving the reverse lever from its position, since at high speeds 
the steam will not pass through the starting valves quickly 
enough to give an excessive pressure in the large cylinders. 
At slow speeds, however, the lever should always be in the 
corner during the time the starting valve is open. If it is 
necessary to open the cylinder cocks at slow speeds, first drop 
the reverse lever into the corner and let it remain there until 
the cylinder-cock lever has been moved to its middle position 
again. It is to be remembered that a locomotive will not make 
as good time with the starting valve open as with it closed, 
besides using a great deal more coal and water; hence, an 
engineer should never make a practice of running with the 
starting valve open, but should use it only in emergencies. 

33. Handling Reverse Lever.— Experiment and also 
general experience tend to show that the simple engine is 
most economical when cutting off at about one-quarter stroke; 



28 COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. § 10 

the most economical point of cut-off for the compound engine, 
on the other hand, is about five-eighths stroke. Experiments 
show also that, as the reverse lever of the simple engine is 
notched towards the corner, the amount of water used per 
horsepower per hour increases rapidly, whereas the amount of 
water used by the compound increases at a much slower rate. 
This peculiarity of the two types of locomotives is quite notice¬ 
able, especially to an engineer that has handled both types. 
The rate for the compound increases quite rapidly, however, 
when it is being run with the starting valve open; hence, for the 
sake of economy, this valve should be used as seldom as possible. 
If, during the run, the locomotive is called on for an extra effort 
that tends to slow down the speed of the train, the reverse 
lever should be dropped—a notch or two at a time—soon enough 
to maintain the speed as nearly as possible. In this way 
less coal and water will be used than will be the case if the train 
is allowed to slow down considerably before the lever is dropped, 
and then have to be brought up to speed again. The starting 
valve should not be opened until the reverse lever has been 
gradually notched forwards, and is in the last notch, and the 
locomotive is in danger of being stalled, and it should be closed 
as soon as the danger of stalling is past. 

34. Handling a Vauclain. —In starting a train with 
a Vauclain compound, first place the reverse lever in the corner 
notch, then move the cylinder-cock lever to its forward position 
to open the cylinder cocks and starting valve, and then open 
the throttle. As soon as the cylinders are free from water and 
the train has attained a speed of from 4 to 6 miles per hour, 
move the cylinder-cock lever to its mid-position, thus closing 
both the cylinder cocks and the starting valve, and causing the 
locomotive to work compound. After closing the starting valve, 
and as the speed of the train increases, hook up the reverse 
lever a notch or two at a time until the proper speed is 
attained. If the locomotive at any time develops more power 
than is required with the reverse lever in any notch, hook it up 
a notch or two more; and if, with the lever in the last notch 
and the high-pressure cylinder cutting off at about half stroke, 





COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 


29 


§10 


it should still develop too much power, partially close the 
throttle and thus reduce the power developed. If running on a 
down grade on which it is not necessary to work steam in the 
cylinders, keep the throttle open just a “ crack,” so as to allow 
sufficient steam in the cylinders to keep the relief valves closed. 
Should the grade be such as to prohibit this practice, then close 
the throttle and gradually move the reverse lever—a few 
notches at a time—to the forward corner, and then move the 
cylinder-cock lever to its backward position, in which it opens 
the starting valve only, since this allows air to circulate either 
way through the pipe t , thus relieving the vacuum formed, and 
making the engine drift more easily. 

35. A reference to Figs. 13 and 14 will show that, in this 
position of the starting valve, the pipe t connects the two ends of 
the high-pressure cylinder together; also, since the chamber i 
leads to the back end of the low-pressure cylinder, it wdll be 
plain that, with the steam valve V (i. e., the piston valve) in the 
position shown (see also Fig. 10), the front end of the high- 
pressure cylinder is connected with the back end of the 
low-pressure cylinder through the valve V; while, with the 
valve V in its back position (see also Fig. 11), the back end 
of the high-pressure cylinder connects with the front end of the 
low-pressure cylinder through chamber^'. Thus, it will be seen 
that, when the engine is drifting with the starting valve open, 
the air that is compressed on one side of the high-pressure 
piston is free to flow to the other side of both the high-pressure 
and the low-pressure pistons, thus preventing, to a considerable 
extent, the formation of a vacuum there. Also, when the style 
of cylinder cock indicated is used (with small check-valve), 
and the starting valve is in its backward position—so as not to 
open the cocks—any vacuum in either end of the low-pressure 
cylinder will cause the check-valve of the cylinder cock on that 
end to open and admit air, while the pressure in the opposite 
end of the cylinder, due to compression, will hold check in the 
other cock seated. It is better that the cylinder cocks should 
not be opened when drifting, as otherwise the air discharging 
from the low-pressure cylinder carries oil along with it, and 



30 


COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 


§ 10 

consequently the cylinders are more liable to become dry and 
cut. The proper position for the reverse lever when drifting 
is in the corner. 

On an up grade, as soon as the engine shows signs of slowing 
down, drop the reverse lever a notch or two, and continue to 
notch forwards as necessary until the lever is in the corner 
notch; then, should the train continue to slow up so that there 
is danger of stalling, open the starting valve until the danger 
is past, whereupon it should be closed. Compound engines 
of this type require about the same amount of cylinder oil as a 
simple engine of equal size and power; hence, the lubricator 
cylinder feeds should be set accordingly. Also, the wear of the 
crosshead and guides requires close attention to prevent lost 
motion. The wearing surfaces of the guides and crosshead are 
now being made considerably larger than formerly, so that the 
wear is much reduced. 


BREAKDOWNS. 

36. Broken Main Rod. — In the event of a main rod 
breaking, place the steam valve on that side in the center of 
the valve seat, as in Fig. 5—in which position all the ports are 
covered—and clamp it there, remove the broken rod, and 
securely clamp the crosshead; then run in with the other side. 
In engines having the direct valve gear, in which the valve 
stem is connected to a small crosshead, the valve will be 
properly placed if this crosshead is blocked so as to be in the 
center of the guides. 

37. Broken High-Pressure Piston Rod. —In the event 
of a broken high-pressure piston rod, it is possible to proceed 
without taking down that side of the engine. Take off 
the front cylinder-head—or the pieces, if broken—remove the 
piston, and then plug the piston-rod hole in the back cylinder- 
head from the inside. Next replace the front head, if unbroken; 
or, if broken, clamp a heavy board over the end of the cylinder 
so as to make a joint as nearly steam-tight as possible; the 
engine is then ready for business. The steam will be dis¬ 
tributed to this cylinder as though the piston were in place; 



§10 


COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 


31 


but, instead of doing work there, it will pass directly through 
the steam valve to the low-pressure cylinder, the same as the 
exhaust steam would. Of course, only three cylinders will be 
available for work, but the locomotive can be worked either 
simple or compound, the same as before the accident occurred. 

38. Broken Low-Pressure Piston Rod. —In case this 
piston rod breaks, take off the front cylinder head, remove the 
piston, and plug the piston-rod hole in the back cylinder head 
from the inside, as in the case of the high-pressure cylinder. 
Replace the cylinder head, and proceed with the run, using 
three cylinders. In this case, also, the locomotive can be run 
either simple or compound. If the front head is broken also, 
you can proceed without it, after removing the piston, the 
exhaust steam from the high-pressure cylinder being allowed to 
exhaust through the opening thus made. If the escaping steam 
obstructs the view so that it is dangerous to run with it thus 
escaping, try to board up the end of the cylinder, or, failing 
in that, take down that side of the locomotive and proceed by 
using the other side. If the cylinder head only is broken, 
proceed as above; only in that event do not remove the piston. 

39. Broken Valve-Stem. —In the event of a broken 
valve-stem, clamp the valve in the center of its seat so as to 
cover all the ports, then take the main rod down, securely 
clamp the crosshead, and run in with the other side. 

40. Other Breakdowns. —Broken packing rings, in 
either the steam-valve or cylinder pistons, are very difficult 
to detect, and generally can only be noticed in their effect on 
the locomotives; that is, when the rings are faulty, the locomo¬ 
tive steams poorly and will not make time on the road, the 
low-pressure piston packing-rings require renewal more fre¬ 
quently than those of the high-pressure piston; sometimes the 
cylinder-cock shaft T, Fig. 12, becomes strained, so that, when 
the cylinder-cock lever is moved, it will open the starting valve 
on one side of the locomotive, but will not open the one on the 
other side. This causes the exhaust to sound out of square, 
and the trouble is very apt to be attributed to the valve gear; 
hence, before altering the valve gear, examine the starting 



32 


COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 


§10 


valves, to see whether they open and close simultaneously, and * 
examine also the steam valve and low-pressure piston for 
broken rings. 


BALDWIN TWO-CYLINDER COMPOUND. 


DESCRIPTION. 

41. General Arrangement. —The general arrangement 
of the high- and low-pressure cylinders and of the intercepting 



valve of the Baldwin two-cylinder compound locomo¬ 
tive is clearly shown in Fig. 17. In this type of compound, 
the high-pressure and low-pressure cylinders are arranged 











































§10 


COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 


33 


similarly to the cylinders of a simple engine, and the distribu¬ 
tion of steam to the cylinders is effected by means of slide 
valves operating in the steam chests S, S. As will be seen, there 
is but one steam pipe D in the smokebox, and that connects 
with the steamway in the cylinder saddle that leads to the 
steam chest of the high-pressure cylinder A. The end Y of 
the receiver connects with a special passage in the saddle that 
leads to the intercepting valve 0, while the other end Z of the 
receiver connects with the steam passage that leads to the steam 
chest of the low-pressure cylinder B. The exhaust pipe P 
connects with the regular exhaust passage leading to the low- 
pressure cylinder, and also, through a special passage, with the 
intercepting valve, which is situated in the same half saddle as 
the high-pressure cylinder; hence, by the action of the inter¬ 
cepting valve, as will be explained, the exhaust steam from the 
high-pressure cylinder may be made to go either through the 
receiver YZ and the cylinder B and its exhaust passage to 
the exhaust pipe P —as when the engine is working com¬ 
pound—or direct through the special passage to the exhaust 
pipe and the atmosphere without entering the receiver, as 
when working simple. Also, there is a special passage that 
connects with the steamway to the high-pressure cylinder 
and leads through the reducing valve K to the steam chest 
of the low-pressure cylinder; it is through this passage that 
live steam is admitted to the low-pressure cylinder while 
the locomotive is being worked simple. 

42. Intercepting Valve. —If the cylinder saddle, Fig. 17, 
were cut through on the line xy, and the high-pressure cylinder 
part removed, the left-hand part would present a sectional view 
of the intercepting and reducing valves similar to that shown 
in Figs. 18 and 19, depending on whether the intercepting and 
reducing valves were in simple or in compound position. 

The intercepting valve consists of two pistons a and b 
connected together by means of the rod x, which also holds the 
pistons a definite distance apart. The valve is made to work 
steam-tight within the bushing d by means of packing rings, as 
shown. The bushing is provided with three ports Z, m, and n 




34 


COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES 


§10 


that connect with the chambers F\ c, and /, respectively. 
Chamber F connects with the exhaust steamway of the high- 
pressure cylinder, chamber c connects with the special 
passage spoken of that leads direct to the exhaust pipe, 
while chamber I connects with the end Y of the receiver. 
When the locomotive is working simple, the spring s 
holds the intercepting valve in its extreme backward 
position against the head h , Fig. 18, in which position 
the cavity between the pistons a and b connects chambers 
F and c, and the piston b cuts off port n, thus closing 
communication between the chambers c and F and cham¬ 
ber /. When working compound, the valve is held in its 
extreme forward position, as shown in Fig. 19, in which 





























































































































§10 


COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 


35 


position the cavity in the valve connects the chambers F and /, 
and the piston a closes port m leading to chamber, c. The 
valve is moved forwards (to compound position) by admitting 
N steam pressure to the chamber Q between the piston a and 
V the head h\ it is moved backwards (to simple position) by 
removing this pressure and allowing the spring s to force 
the piston back. 

The duty of the intercepting valve, it will be observed, 
is simply to divert the exhaust steam of the high-pressure 
cylinder as it issues from chamber F , either directly to the 
exhaust pipe through chamber c, as when working simple, 
Fig. 18, or through chamber I into the receiver and thence 
to the low-pressure cylinder, as when working compound, 































































































































36 


COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 


§10 


Fig. 19. Live steam from the steam pipe D enters the steam¬ 
way G and flows around the intercepting valve to the high- 
pressure steam chest; the intercepting valve, however, does not 
affect the live steam, its duty being entirely with the exhaust 
steam of the high-pressure cylinder. 

43. Reducing Valve.—When the locomotive is working 
compound, live steam enters and is expanded in the high- 
pressure cylinder A, and, after expansion, is exhausted into the 
receiver YZ, from whence it passes to the low-pressure 
cylinder B. In the compound position, therefore, the steam 
supply for the low-pressure cylinder comes from the high- 
pressure exhaust steam; but in the simple position, this 
exhaust steam discharges directly into the atmosphere, and it 
then becomes necessary to supply the low-pressure cylinder 
with steam at a reduced pressure from the boiler. Also, since 
the area of the low-pressure piston is about two and one-half 
times the area of the high-pressure piston, the pressure of the 
steam admitted into the low-pressure cylinder must be regulated 
so that the total force exerted on the two pistons will be equal; 
it is the duty of the reducing valve K to perform both of these 
functions. In other words, one duty of the reducing valve is 
to admit live steam at a reduced pressure into the receiver when 
the engine is working simple, and to exclude live steam from 
the receiver when the engine is working compound, since it is 
not then required; the other duty is to so regulate the pressure 
in the receiver, when live steam is being admitted, that the 
total force exerted on the pistons in the two cylinders will 
always be equal, regardless of the pressure of the steam in the 
steam pipe. The reducing valve remains inoperative during 
the time the locomotive is working compound. 

44. The reducing valve K , Fig. 18, consists of two pistons 
i and j connected together by means of a sleeve. A spring is so 
arranged within the sleeve that it tends to hold the valve 
open—that is, in its forward position—as shown in Fig. 18. 
The valve works steam-tight within a bushing o, the back end 
of which is furnished with the ports t , so that, when the 
valve is in the position shown in Fig. 18 (position for working 





§10 


COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 


37 


simple), live steam can pass from the chamber G through the 
ports t and into chamber /, and thence to the receiver. When 
the valve is moved to the position shown in Fig. 19 (compound 
position), no steam can pass between the chambers G and I, 
because the ports t are covered by the valve K. This valve 
can be moved at will backward to its compound position 
by introducing steam pressure into the space v, between 
the piston i of the valve and the end w of chamber; while 
it is forced forward to simple position by the action of the 
spring as soon as the pressure in chamber v is removed. 
How the valve performs its functions can best be explained 
in connection with Fig. 20, which is a sectional view of 
the valve in simple position. In this position, live steam 
flows from chamber G through the ports t into chamber 7, 
and thence to the receiver, as indicated by the arrows. 
While the reducing valve must be made to perform one of 
its duties, it is perfectly automatic in the performance of its 
other duty, namely, the work of regulating the pressure in 
the receiver when the engine is working simple. The reducing 
valve is then operated automatically by the pressure in the 
receiver, and it will close the ports t as soon as the pressure 
in the receiver is great enough to equalize the force exerted 
on the two pistons j and i, or it will open the ports should 
the pressure fall below that amount. Its operation as a 
pressure regulator is as follows: Live-steam pressure, in 
chamber G , is exerted on the face of the piston j, and tends to 
hold the valve open; the steam pressure in the receiver, on the 
other hand, passes through port e, raises valve 6 , and then flows 
through the passages 5 and If into chamber v (see Fig. 19), and 
thus acts against the face of the piston i, with a tendency to 
close the valve. Now, the piston i has about two and one- 
quarter times* the area exposed to the receiver steam that 
piston j has exposed to the live steam; hence, when the pressure 
in the receiver is a little less than half that of the live steam, 
the valve will be moved backwards and the ports t closed. 

*The two pistons j and i are so proportioned that equal cylinder 
power will be given to both sides of the locomotive, regardless of the 
amount of pressure carried in the boiler. 




38 COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. §10 


When the pressure in the receiver is reduced so that the force 
exerted by the steam on j is sufficiently greater than that 


exerted on i to compress the spring, the valve will open; 
and so the action of the valve is carried on. 
























































§10 


COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 


39 


45. When the engineer wishes to work the engine com¬ 
pound, he admits steam (through the pipe/) to chamber v back 
of the piston i of the reducing valve; steam flowing from / 
passes through the passages 1 and 2, raises valve 3, and passes 
on through If to chambers, and forces the reducing valve back¬ 
wards, closing the ports t. Live steam cannot then enter the 
receiver, which is being supplied with steam by the high- 
pressure cylinder exhaust. It will be observed that pressure 
can pass to chamber 10 above valve 6 through the passage 7, 
chamber 8, and passage P; hence, valve 6 is held firmly on 
its seat during the time the pipe / is charged with pressure. 

46. Operating Valve.—Referring to Figs. 18 and 19, it 
will be seen that the pipes e and / are joined together at 7) and 
are connected, by means of pipe g , to the operating valve R that 
is situated in the cab. It is by means of this valve that the 
engineer is enabled to change at will the intercepting and 
reducing valves from the simple to the compound positions, or 
from the compound to the simple positions. 

A cross-sectional view of the operating valve is shown in 
Fig. 21 (a), and a plan of it in Fig. 21 (6). As will be seen, the 
valve has three pipe connections, marked X, F, and Z, respect¬ 
ively; the connection with pipe g , Fig. 18, is made at X, Fig. 21, 
the connection to the boiler at Y, while a pipe that opens to the 
atmosphere is connected to Z. Part of the valve stem is broken 
away, view (a), in order to show the steam connection Y. The 
valve V, it will be observed, has two seats, one at a, upon which 
it is shown seated, and the other at b. A handle N is connected 
with the valve spindle S , and the spindle is provided with screw 
threads c , so constructed that half a turn of the handle will 
move the valve V from one of its seats to the other, depending 
on the direction in which the handle is turned. There are two 
positions in which the handle N is carried; these positions, one 
simple and the other compound , are marked on the quadrant Q. 
When the handle is in the position marked compound , the 
valve V is on its lower seat a, as shown in the figure, and steam 
can then flow from the boiler through the connection Y f past the 
valve, and out through X and pipes g, e, and /, Fig. 19, to the 




40 


COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 


§10 


chambers Q and v, forcing the intercepting and reducing valves 
to their compound positions. The locomotive is then working 
compound. By turning the handle to the position marked 

simple, the valve V is raised to its 
upper seat b, thus cutting off the 
supply of steam from the boiler 


. 


through Y; also, by raising 
the valve, the opening into 
the drip pipe Z is un¬ 
covered, and the' steam 
jiressure caught in the 
pipes g , /, and e discharges 
instantly to the atmos¬ 
phere. This removes all 
pressure from the cham¬ 
bers Q and v; and, conse¬ 
quently, the intercepting 
and reducing valves as¬ 
sume their simple posi¬ 



tions, Fig. 18, and the locomotive 
works as a simple engine. 


OPERATION. 

47. The Baldwin two-cylinder 
compound c^in be worked either as 
a simple or as a compound locomo¬ 
tive, at the will of the engineer, and 
this change from simple to com¬ 
pound or vice versa can be effected 
simply by moving the handle N of 
the operating valve into the proper 
position. When the locomotive is 
standing still, the handle of the 






























































10 


COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 


41 


operating valve will be in the position marked “simple” and 
the locomotive is then in a condition to work as a simple, or 
single-expansion, engine, because both the intercepting valve 
and the reducing valve are in the simple position. 

The intercepting valve diverts the exhaust steam from the 
high-pressure cylinder into the special exhaust passage c, and 
thence to the exhaust pipe; while, at the same time, the redu¬ 
cing valve is wide open, as a result of which live steam is 
permitted to flow from chamber G into the receiver, from which 
the low-pressure cylinder draws its supply. 

As regards the use to be made of this operating valve: the 
locomotive may be used as a simple engine when engaged in 
making up trains or in starting a train, but, after it has fairly 
got into motion, the locomotive should be converted into a 
compound and worked as such until the engineer may find it 
desirable to convert back into simple, as mentioned later on. 
This conversion of the engine from simple to compound is 
accomplished, as already described, by moving the handle of 
the operating valve, shown in Fig. 21, from the position marked 
“simple” to that marked “compound,” this change in position 
of the handle allowing steam from the boiler to enter the 
pipes e and /, as a result of which both the intercepting and the 
reducing valves immediately move over into their compound 
positions. The exhaust steam from the high-pressure cylinder 
now r , instead of passing directly into the atmosphere, goes into 
the receiver and there constitutes the steam supply for the low- 
pressure cylinder, the reducing valve being held closed by the 
steam pressure in chamber v. 

Should it at any time appear to the engineer that he is in 
danger of being stalled, he can change the locomotive back from 
its compound to its simple position, until all danger of stalling 
is past. The reason for his doing this is that more power is 
developed in the cylinders of the locomotive when working as a 
simple engine than when working as a compound, because in 
the former case, as already explained, not only does the high- 
pressure cylinder get live steam (at practically boiler pressure) 
as usual, but we have in addition steam of a higher pressure 
than ordinary going into the low-pressure cylinder, instead of 




42 


COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 


10 


its only receiving steam which has already done duty in the 
high-pressure cylinder and is therefore considerably reduced 
in pressure. 


BREAKDOWNS. 

48. Broken Main Bod: High-Pressure Side. —In the 
event of a main rod on the high-pressure side breaking, take 
it down, block the crosshead securely at the back end of the 
guides, disconnect the valve rod of the high-pressure valve, 
and place the valve in the center of its seat, so that it will 
block the ports, and clamp it there; place the handle of the 
operating valve in simple position, and proceed, using the low- 
pressure side only. With the operating valve in simple 
position, as recommended above, the intercepting and reducing 
valves will be moved to simple position by their springs, and 
the low-pressure side will be supplied, through the reducing 
valve, with live steam. 

49. Broken Main Bod: Bow-Pressure Side. —In case 
the main rod on the low-pressure side breaks, take it down and 
block the crosshead at the back end of the guides; disconnect 
the low r -pressure valve stem, and clamp the valve in such a 
position that it will cover both ports; move the handle of the 
operating valve to simple position, and proceed, using only the 
high-pressure cylinder of the locomotive. Referring to Fig. 18, 
it will be seen that live steam will pass from chamber G to the 
high-pressure cylinder, and will exhaust through the emergency 
exhaust passage c directly to the atmosphere, without entering 
the receiver. 

50. Broken Valve Stem.— In the event of either valve 
stem breaking, take down the main rod on that side, block the 
crosshead at the back end of the guides, clamp the valve in 
the center of its seat, and proceed, carrying the handle of the 
operating valve in simple position. 

51. Failure of Intercepting or Beducing Valves. 
If either of these valves fails to operate properly, so that it is 
necessary to locate and remedy the trouble, take the head off 




§10 


COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 


43 


the bushing of the valve causing the trouble, remove the valve, 
and ascertain and remedy if possible the cause of the improper 
operation of the valve. 

RICHMOND COMPOUND. 

DESCRIPTION. 

52. General Arrangement. —Fig. 22 is a front view of 
the latest type of Richmond compound locomotive, show¬ 
ing the relative positions of the high-pressure cylinder A , low- 
pressure cylinder B , and intercepting-valve chamber C , together 



with the arrangement of the steam pipes D and E and the 
receiver YZ. The upper part of the receiver is broken away, 
in order that the steam pipes may be seen. It will be observed 























44 


COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES 


§10 


that the steam pipes are of unequal diameter. The one marked 
D is of usual size, and connects directly with the steam way (in 
the cylinder saddle) that leads to the high-pressure steam chest; 
its duty is to supply steam to this steam chest. The pipe E is 
much smaller, being only 3 inches in diameter, and it connects 
with a special steamway that leads to a chamber surrounding 
the reducing valve. The exhaust passage from the high-pres¬ 
sure cylinder connects with the end Y of the receiver, the other 
end Z of which connects with a special passage that leads to 
the intercepting-valve chamber C. Also, a passage (the steam¬ 
way to the low-pressure cylinder) leads from the intercepting 
valve to the steam chest of the low-pressure cylinder, while 
the exhaust passage from this cylinder leads directly to the 
exhaust pipe P. 

This will be seen more clearly by referring to Fig. 23, which 
is a sectional view taken through the exhaust passages. The 



steam pipe D connects with the steamway G; this steamway 
divides into two branches, one of which connects with the back 
end, and the other (marked x) with the front end, of the steam 
chest. The exhaust passage H leads to the receiver. On the 
low-pressure side, I is the chamber with which the end Z of the 
receiver connects, while K is the exhaust passage that leads to 
the exhaust pipe. The distribution of steam to the steam 



















I 










































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































§10 


COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 


45 


cylinders is effected by means of slide valves operating in 
the steam chests. W is the chamber in which the over-pass 
valves work. 

53. Arrangement of Intercepting Valve, Etc. —A 
perspective view of the Richmond compound locomotive is 
given in Fig. 24, in which a part of the low-pressure cylinder 
and left half of the saddle has been broken away (on the line 
xy, Fig. 22), in order to show the relative positions of the 
different valves and passages; also, the low-pressure steam 
chest has been removed. In the figure, M is the intercepting 
valve, by means of which the exhaust steam from the high- 
pressure cylinder is discharged either into the low-pressure 
cylinder when the engine is working compound, or directly to 
the exhaust pipe when it is working simple. The valve N is 
called the emergency valve, since, by its use, the engineer 
can change the engine from compound to simple at will. This 
is accomplished, as will be explained farther on, by causing 
the valve to open a special passageway c between chamber I 
and the regular exhaust passage F. 

The reducing valve 0 is merely a cylindrical sleeve capable 
of sliding back and forth a distance of 1 inch on the stem s of 
the intercepting valve; its duty is to admit live steam at a 
reduced pressure to the low-pressure steam chest during the 
time the engine is working simple, and to regulate the pressure 
there to a certain percentage of that of the steam used in the 
high-pressure cylinder. The piston p on the valve stem s acts 
as an air dashpot for the intercepting valve, to prevent the 
valve slamming on its seat. 

54. The chamber 7, it will be observed, connects directly 
with the end Z of the receiver. The 3-inch steam pipe E con¬ 
nects with the passage a that ends in the chamber L surround¬ 
ing the reducing valve. The passage R is the steam way that 
leads directly to the low-pressure steam chest; it is connected 
with chamber L through the reducing valve 0, and with 
the chamber I through the intercepting valve M. A cham¬ 
ber b separates chamber I from the emergency exhaust 




46 


COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 


10 



passage c , and the ex¬ 
haust passage leads directly 
to the regular exhaust 
passage F. The over-pass 
valves V are shown also, 
while an air-discharge valve 
is connected with the open¬ 
ing that is directly below 
the exhaust valve N. The 
different valves are shown 
in their simple positions— 
that is, in the positions they 
assume during the time the 
locomotive is being worked 
as a simple locomotive. As 
will be seen by the arrows, 
the exhaust steam from the 
high-pressure cylinder 
passes from the end Y to 
the end Z of the receiver, 
and thence, through cham¬ 
bers I and 6, exhaust valve 
N, and emergency exhaust 
passage c, to the main ex¬ 
haust passage F and the 
atmosphere. At the same 
time, steam passes from the 
small steam pipe E through 
the passage a to chamber 
L, thence through the redu¬ 
cing valve 0 and passage R 
to the low-pressure steam 
chest, as indicated by the 
arrows. The exhaust steam 
from the low-pressure cylin¬ 
der passes directly to the 
main exhaust passage F, 
as indicated. 
































§10 


COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 


47 


55. Details of Intercepting Valve.— This valve, some¬ 
times called the automatic starting valve , is shown in section in 
Fig. 25. The piston p screws on to the valve stem s, and is 
held in position hy the nut n and cotter pin r; also, the piston 
is fitted with two packing rings a , a. The valve stem s is 
fitted with four packing rings marked 5, and water-packing 
grooves marked c. A shoulder d is beveled at an angle 
of 45°, and this forms a steam-tight joint on the seat c on the 
inside of the valve 0. A groove t is cut in the shoulder d , 
the purpose of which will be seen later. The end e of the 
valve M is finished so as to make a steam-tight joint with its 
seat. It will be noticed, also, that two f-inch holes u and v are 



drilled through the small end of the valve, and a steel plug is 
screwed into the end at iv. The leakage holes h are intended 
to prevent any steam pressure accumulating under the sleeve 
where it would interfere with the proper operation of the valve. 
The steam leaks out through the holes to the bottom of the 
stem 8, and thence through the passage k in the stem to the 
outer end of the dashpot, whence it escapes to the atmosphere' 
through the hole l in the dashpot head (see Fig. 27). 

56. Details of Reducing Valve. —The reducing valve 
0 is shown in section in Fig. 26, in which the parts marked £, 


























COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 


§10 


48 


and 6 correspond to the parts similarly marked in Fig. 27. This 
valve, as has already been remarked, is in the form of a cylin¬ 
drical sleeve, the inside diameter of which is just large enough 
to allow the sleeve to slip freely over the valve stem s. The 
sleeve is fitted with six packing rings and a water-packing 
groove b. The shoulder c is beveled at a 45° angle, and this 
fits on and makes a steam-tight joint with the shoulder d of the 
valve stem s. A hole j, £ inch in diameter, is drilled through 
the sleeve in such a position that when the intercepting valve 
is closed and the reducing valve is open the hole is directly 
above the groove t in the valve stem, and steam from chamber L 
can then pass through j into groove t. A 45° beveled joint is 
also made at / with the piece 4, and the shoulder g is notched 
out as shown. The sleeve is about 1 inch shorter than the valve 
stem s, so that it can be moved back and forth on the stem that 
distance. The holes i, i are leakage holes, and serve the same 
purpose as the holes h of the stem. 

57. Operation of Reducing Valve. —It will be remem¬ 
bered that the exhaust steam from the high-pressure cylinder 
discharges directly into the receiver; hence, when the intercept¬ 
ing valve M is closed, two or three exhausts will fill the 
receiver and chamber I with steam at the regular receiver 
pressure. It will readily be seen also that, after the throttle is 
closed, the low-pressure cylinder will quickly relieve the receiver 
and chamber I of all pressure by withdrawing the steam from 
them; hence, there will be no pressure in the receiver by the 
time the locomotive is to be started. 

When the throttle is opened in starting the locomotive, steam 
flows from the boiler to the high-pressure steam chest through 
the steam pipe D, and also to chamber L surrounding the redu¬ 
cing valve through the 3-inch pipe E and passage a. The steam 
in chamber L exerts a pressure on the shoulder g of the sleeve, 
tending to move the sleeve and intercepting valve to simple 
position, as shown in Fig. 27; and, since there is no pressure 
in chamber I (the locomotive not having exhausted yet), the 
valves are forced to that position, thus closing the valve M 
and allowing live steam at a reduced pressure to flow into the 



§10 


COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 


' 49 


passage R and the low-pressure steam chest, as indicated by 
the arrows. This live steam raises the pressure in chamber 
R until it is a little less than half that exerted by the live 




Fig. 27. 























































































50 


COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 


§10 


steam in chamber L ; it then exerts sufficient force on the end n 
and surface z of the sleeve to overcome the force exerted on the 
shoulder g , and the sleeve, consequently, is moved forwards on 













































































































COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 


51 


§10 


the stem s until it closes the passageway between the chambers 
L and R, as shown in Fig. 28, and cuts off the supply of live 
steam from chamber R. A reduction of pressure in chamber R 
again causes the reducing valve to move to the position shown 
in Fig. 27. Thus, by opening and closing the passage between 
chambers L and R, as described, the reducing valve maintains a 
pressure in the chamber R that is about four-tenths that of the 
live steam in chamber X; hence, the pressure of the steam used 
in the low-pressure cylinder, when the engine is working simple, 
is about four-tenths that used in the high-pressure cylinder, this 
ratio of pressure being maintained in order to make the total 
force exerted on the high-pressure and low-pressure pistons 
equal, the area of the latter piston being made two and one- 
half times the area of the former. 


OPERATION. 

58. As a Compound Locomotive. —Assume that the 
locomotive is to be started as a compound engine. When 
the throttle is opened, steam flows to the high-pressure steam 
chest, and thence to one end of the high-pressure cylinder; 
at the same time steam flows into chamber X, opens the 
reducing valve, and closes the intercepting valve, and then 
passes on to the low-pressure steam chest and cylinder. There¬ 
fore, in starting compound, both the high-pressure and the low- 
pressure cylinders, for a few seconds, receive live steam directly 
from the boiler; the live steam for the low-pressure cylinder, 
however, is reduced by the reducing valve to the required 
pressure. As the locomotive moves forwards, the high-pressure 
cylinder exhausts into the receiver at every revolution of the 
drivers’and, since the intercepting valve is closed, the exhaust 
steam accumulates and raises the pressure in the receiver, until, 
after three or four exhausts, the pressure has increased suffi¬ 
ciently to force the intercepting and the reducing valves forwards 
to their compound positions, as shown in Fig. 29. Closing the 
reducing valve cuts off the live steam from the low-pressure 
cylinder, and this cylinder is then supplied with exhaust steam 



52 


COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 


§10 


from the receiver, the steam passing through the intercepting 
valve to the low-pressure steam chest. It will thus be seen 
that, when starting the locomotive in compound position, it 































































































§10 


COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 


53 


works as a simple engine for two or three revolutions, and 
then automatically changes to compound. 

From the foregoing, it will be seen that the valves are wholly 
automatic in their action during the time the engine is working 
compound; that is, in starting the locomotive, the reducing 
valve opens and the intercepting valve closes automatically, 
and they remain thus until the exhaust steam from the high- 
pressure cylinder raises the pressure in the receiver to the 
required amount, whereupon the intercepting valve opens and 
the reducing valve closes automatically. The valves are then 
in their compound positions, and they remain there as long as 
the engine is working compound. The intercepting valve is 
automatically closed by the pressure of the steam on the 
shoulder g of the reducing valve, as already explained. The 
reason it opens automatically is as follows: The front end of 
the valve is larger than the back end; besides this, the pressure 
on the small end is balanced; hence, the valve is unbalanced, 
and any pressure in the receiver will give it a tendency to open. 
As the pressure in the receiver increases, this tendency increases, 
until, finally, it is great enough to move the valve forwards, 
thus opening it. 

59. As a Simple Locomotive. —It may be necessary in 
starting a very heavy train, or in order to avoid stalling on a 
grade, to work the locomotive simple for a time until the train 
is fairly under way or the danger of stalling is past, after which 
it should be changed to compound. To do this, however, it is 
necessary that the engineer be provided with some means by 
which he can convert the locomotive from compound to simple 
and back again at will. In the Richmond compound this is 
provided for as follows: The chamber x, Fig. 30, back of the 
emergency valve A r , is connected by means of a pipe / with an 
operating valve V situated conveniently in the cab. When the 
engineer wishes to work the locomotive simple, he turns the 
handle of the valve V to the position marked simple; this 
admits steam through the pipe / to the space x, back of the 
valve N, and forces the valve forwards, thus opening it. 

When the valve N is closed, the pressure in chamber b is 



54 


COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 


§10 




maintained equal to that in chamber I through the two J-inch 
holes u and v; hence, while the exhaust valve N is closed, the 
pressure on the small end of the intercepting valve M is 
balanced. When the valve N is opened, however, the pressure 













































































































§10 


COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 


55 


in chamber b escapes through the valve N and the passage c to 
the main exhaust passage F ', thus removing, practically, all the 
pressure from that face of the intercepting valve M that is in 
chamber b. The combined pressures of the steam in chamber I 
on the small end of the valve it/, together with that of the 
steam in chamber L on the shoulder g of the sleeve, is then 
great enough to overcome the pressure of the steam in 
chamber I on the large end of the valve 71/; consequently, if 
the valves are not already in their simple positions, they will be 
moved there. When the valves have assumed their simple 
position, Fig. 30, live steam passes through the reducing valve 
and passage R to the low-pressure steam chest, while the 
exhaust steam from the high-pressure cylinder flows directly to 
the atmosphere through the receiver, emergency valve TV, emer¬ 
gency exhaust port c, the main exhaust passage F\ and the 
exhaust pipe, as indicated by the arrows. As long as the 
handle of the operating valve is left in the position marked 
simple, the engine will work as a simple engine; but, when it is 
turned to the position marked compound, the pressure in pipe / 
and chamber x is removed, and the pressure of the exhaust 
steam against the back head of the valve TV, together with the 
action of the spring, causes the valve TV to close. This closes 
the only outlet from the receiver; hence, the exhaust steam 
from the high-pressure cylinder raises the pressute in the 
receiver until it is sufficient to open the intercepting valve, and 
thus automatically converts the locomotive into a compound 
locomotive again. _ 

OPERATING AND PROTECTIVE DEVICES. 

60. Operating Valve.— In Fig. 31 is given a sectional 
view of the emergency operating valve, used in connec¬ 
tion with the Richmond compound. The connection X is 
screwed into the steam turret; the pipe /, Fig. 30, that leads to 
the emergency valve, connects at Y, while a pipe connected to Z 
leads to the atmosphere. The valve V is a double-seated valve, 
operated by means of the handle H, and it is moved from one 
of its seats to the other by a half turn of the handle. The 
operating valve is usually so placed on the turret that the 




56 


COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 


§10 


locomotive is working compound when the handle points to 
the front, and is working simple when the handle points to the 
rear. The tapped hole 0 (^-inch pipe) is for a small oil cup. 

The valve operates as follows: When the handle points to 
the front, as in the figure, the valve V is in the position shown, 



Fig. 31. 

in which position the chamber x and pipe /, Fig. 30, are open 
to the atmosphere through the opening of the valve V and the 
connection Z. This is the compound position of the operating 
valve. When the handle is moved so as to point to the rear, 
the valve V is raised to its upper seat, thus closing the valve 







































































































§10 


COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 


57 


opening to connection Z, and opening that to connection X. 
Steam can now flow from the boiler through X , past valve V, 
out at Y into the pipe /, and so into the chamber x, back of 
the emergency valve N, thus opening the valve and causing 
the locomotive to operate as a simple locomotive. 

61 . Over-Pass Valves.—Considerable trouble has been 
experienced with compound locomotives on account of the 
action they have on the fire when drifting down grade with 
steam shut off. While this trouble is present, to a small 
extent, in engines having small cylinders, it is especially notice¬ 
able in compounds in which the large low-pressure cylinder is 
connected directly with the exhaust. When drifting, the air 
drawn into the cylinders through the relief valves is compressed 
by the pistons, which act as air compressors, and thumping and 
rough riding of the engine result; also, the cylinders are cooled 
considerably by the air drawn in, and, after being compressed, 
the air is discharged through the stack and creates a draft that 
causes the fire to burn more than is desirable. The over-pass 
valves of the Richmond compound were designed with the 
object of preventing the above-mentioned evils. As will be 
seen ( W, Fig. 24), they are placed together within a special 
chamber made in the cylinder casting, just below the 
steam chest. 

Sectional views of the over-pass valves are given in Fig. 32 
(a) and (6), in which (a) shows the position of the valves 
when steam is being used, and (6) shows the position of the 
valves when the locomotive is drifting with steam shut off. 
Fig. 32 is not a strictly accurate section of the parts and pas¬ 
sages shown, but is so constructed as to show in effect just what 
the connections are. Referring to the figure, a and b represent 
the two steam passages that lead from the slide-valve seat to the 
two ends of the low-pressure cylinder, c represents the chamber 
connecting with the exhaust passage F\ while d and e are the 
passages connecting with the supply ports in the steam chest. 
The space S between the valves X and F is connected with the 
steam passages a and b by the ports/ and g , respectively. The 
spaces U and V are connected with the passages d and e by 




58 


COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 


§10 


means of the ports h and i , respectively. The edge of the 
inner faces of the valves X and Y are beveled so as to make a 
steam joint with the seats m and n. The two pistons r and s 
are necessary to cushion the movements of the valves U and V 
and prevent slamming, for these valves (sometimes made 5 
inches in diameter) have a rapid motion. The operation of 
the valves is as follows: As long as the throttle is open, the 
passages d and e, and consequently the chambers U and V ) 
are filled with steam and the over-pass valves are held closed, 




Fig. 32. 


as shown in view (a); when the throttle is closed, however, 
and the locomotive is allowed to drift, a vacuum forms in the. 
steam chest. This causes a vacuum to form in chambers U 
and V, and the valves X and Y are forced apart into the 
positions shown in view (5). This opens a passage from one 
end of the cylinder to the other, so that the air that is being 
compressed ahead of the piston is free to flow into the other 
end of the cylinder, as shown by the arrows, thus preventing, 
to a considerable extent, the formation of a vacuum there. 
The space 8 between the valves is connected to the atmosphere 























































































































§10 COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 59 

through the small vent v, as it was found advisable to admit 
some external air in order to prevent the cylinder from 
becoming overheated by the heat generated in churning the 
air back and forth in the cylinder. Also, the vent helps to 
prevent a vacuum from being formed. The over-pass valves 
are only applied to the low-pressure cylinder. 

62. Automatic Air Discharge-Valve.— A sectional 
view of the air discharge-valve K (see Fig. 27) is shown in 



Fig. 33. 

Fig. 33. As will be seen, the stem on the valve V is provided 
with three packing rings to make it steam-tight. The pipe y 
connects with the live-steam passage that leads to the low- 
pressure steam chest, so that there is direct connection between 
that steam chest and chamber Z. The chamber X is in direct 















































60 


COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 


§10 


connection with the exhaust passage c, Fig. 30. The action of 
the valve is as follows: Chamber Z is filled with steam as long 
as the throttle is opened, and the steam exerts a pressure on the 
end of the valve stem that holds the valve V up against its 
seat, as shown. When the throttle is closed, however, the 
valve drops down and a direct opening is made between 
the exhaust passage c and the atmosphere, as indicated by the 
arrows. Thus, when the locomotive is drifting, air can pass . 
either from or to the low-pressure cylinder through the air- 
discharge valve without passing through the exhaust pipe, and 
the result is that the action on the fire, caused by the discharge 
of air from the cylinder through the exhaust pipe, is very much 
modified, while sparks and hot gases are prevented from being 
drawn into the cylinder 


OPERATING. 

63. Starting a Train. —Under ordinary conditions, a 
Richmond compound will start a train of moderate weight 
smoothly while working compound, so that to start such a 
train, place the reverse lever in the corner, turn the handle of 
the operating valve so that it points towards the front end (com¬ 
pound position), open the cylinder cocks, and, last of all, open 
the throttle; gradually hook up the reverse lever as the speed 
of the train increases, until it is in the proper running notch. 

In starting on grades or in starting a heavy train, the 
locomotive should be converted to a simple locomotive, until 
it has the train moving freely, when it should be worked 
compound. In other words, to start on a heavy grade or to 
start a heavy train, place the reverse lever in the corner, open 
the cylinder cocks, move the handle of the operating valve 
to simple position (pointing to the rear), and then open the 
throttle. As soon as the train is moving freely, and it is pos¬ 
sible to work the locomotive compound, do so, hooking up the 
reverse lever as the speed of the train warrants, until it is in 
the proper position. 

64. Use of Operating Valve. —The locomotive should 
be worked simple only when it is absolutely necessary, as in the 




10 


COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 


61 


cases just cited, or when in danger of stalling, and it should 
be converted to compound again as soon as practicable, since 
the economy of the locomotive is very much reduced when 
working simple, and, besides, the exhaust has a very severe 
action on the fire at such times. It should be remembered that 
the reverse lever must first be placed in the corner before the 
operating valve is moved to simple position, and that the lever 
must remain in the corner as long as the operating valve 
remains in simple position, the handle of the operating valve 
always being moved to compound position before the reverse 
lever is hooked up. Also, the operating valve should only be 
used at speeds of less than 8 miles per hour. 

65. Reverse Lever and Throttle. —In the use of the 
reverse lever, it is to be remembered that the best position of 
the lever for a compound is somewhere between that of half 
cut-off and the corner, the exact notch depending, of course, on 
the controlling conditions, such as the load, grade, speed, etc. 
It is to be remembered, also, that the train should be handled 
by means of the reverse lever rather than by the throttle; when 
working compound, the lever can be dropped much lower with¬ 
out tearing the fire, and this should be taken advantage of when 
necessary. The throttle should be carried as wide open as 
possible under the circumstances, and the engineer should use 
good judgment in this respect. Under some conditions it may 
be found advantageous and more economical to close the 
throttle slightly and drop the reverse lever a notch, rather 
than to run with the throttle wide open; but it should be borne 
in mind that the best economy will result if the throttle is 
always carried as wide open as the controlling conditions will 
permit. It is important, also, that the cylinder cocks should 
always be opened when starting, as, at first, condensation is 
very rapid, especially in the high-pressure cylinder, and the 
resulting water greatly increases the danger of knocking out a 
cylinder head, should slipping occur. 

66. Drifting. —It is very important that the reverse lever 
of a locomotive be carried in the corner when drifting with the 



62 


COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 


§10 


throttle closed, and this should not be overlooked. The over¬ 
pass valves of the Richmond type are of great service when 
drifting, and they should receive sufficient attention to keep them 
in good working order. Failure of the over-pass valves to 
operate will be manifested by a disagreeable thumping when 
the engine is drifting with throttle closed. 

67. Oiling- the Cylinders and Valves. —One of the two 
cylinder feeds of the lubricator is connected to the high-pressure 
steam chest in the usual manner, but the oil pipe from the 
other feed, instead of leading to the low-pressure steam chest, is 
connected at e, Fig. 27, to the live-steam passage a that leads to 
chamber L. When the locomotive is working compound, 
therefore, and the reducing valve is closed, it is impossible for 
oil to pass from the oil pipe at e to the low-pressure cylinder; 
hence, lubrication of the cylinders at such times is accomplished 
by means of the high-pressure feed only, and the other feed is 
stopped, as any oil delivered by it would simply be. wasted. 
The feed to the high-prefcsure steam chest should be set to feed 
from 6 to 10 drops per minute while running under ordinary 
conditions, the feed being increased when the steam is wet and 
during such times as the locomotive is being forced. 

68. When starting simple, allow several drops of oil to 
pass through the feed to the low-pressure side, so as to lubricate 
the intercepting valve, but shut off immediately when the 
locomotive is converted to compound. When starting com¬ 
pound, allow about 6 drops to feed to the low-pressure side. 
During such times as it is necessary to run the locomotive 
simple, reduce the feed to the high-pressure cylinder, and start 
the feed on the low-pressure side; the oil for the low-pressure 
side can then pass with the steam through the reducing valve 
into the low-pressure cylinder. Feeding oil into the inter¬ 
cepting valve is to be avoided as much as possible, since it 
has a tendency to gum up the small packing rings. The 
small oil cup that is screwed into the connection 0 of the 
operating valve, Fig. 31, should be filled with cylinder oil, and 
one cupful will provide the exhaust valve N with sufficient 
lubrication for two days provided the oil is properly used. 




COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 


63 


§10 


BREAKDOWNS. 

09. Broken Main Rod: High-Pressure Side.—In 

the event of a main rod breaking on. the high-pressure side, 
take it down, clamp the steam valve of that side in the center 
of its seat, move the piston to the back end of the cylinder, and 
securely block the crosshead so as to hold it there; then move 
the handle of the operating valve to simple position, and run in 
with the low-pressure side. The low-pressure cylinder will 
receive live steam, at a reduced pressure, through the reducing 
valve, and hence will act as a simple engine. 

TO. Broken Main Rod: Low-Pressure Side. —If the 
broken rod is on the low-pressure side, take it down, clamp 
the valve in the center of its seat, block the crosshead so that 
the piston will be in the back end of the cylinder, move the 
operating valve to simple position, and run in with the high- 
pressure side. The exhaust steam from the high-pressure 
cylinder will escape directly to the atmosphere through the 
emergency exhaust passage c, and, while steam can enter the 
low-pressure steam chest through the reducing valve, it can 
go no farther. 

71. Broken Valve Stem. —In the event of a valve stem 
breaking, proceed exactly as if the main rod on that side had 
been broken. 

SCHENECTADY COMPOUND. 


DESCRIPTION. 

72. General Arrangement.— The general arrangement 
of the high-pressure cylinder A, low-pressure cylinder B, and 
intercepting-valve chamber C, and also the arrangement of the 
steam pipes D and E, and the receiver YZ in the latest type of 
Schenectady compound are shown in Fig. 34. The upper 
part of the receiver has been broken away to show more clearly 
the arrangement of the steam pipes, while the lower part of the 
figure presents a sectional view of the saddle and cylinders with 





64 


COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 


§10 


the steam-chest covers removed. It will be observed that the 
exhaust passage from the high-pressure cylinder A connects 
directly with the end Y of the receiver, the end Z of which leads 
to the chamber I surrounding the upper side of the intercepting 
valve. Also, it will be noticed that a chamber G surrounds 



Fig. 34. 


the lower side of the intercepting valve, and connects the two 
ends of the low-pressure steam chest by means of a divided 
passage—the front branch S of which is shown. The exhaust 
passage F from the low-pressure cylinder leads directly to the 
exhaust pipe P. The distribution of steam to the cylinders is 
effected by means of slide valves in the steam chests. 













































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































m 
















' 


' 







. 








§10 


COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 


65 


73. Arrangement of tlie Valves and Passages. 
The arrangement of the several valves of the Schenectady 
compound is shown in perspective in Fig. 35, part of the low- 
pressure cylinder and left half of the saddle having been broken 
away (on the line xy, Fig. 34), in order to show the relative 
positions of the valves and passages. In the figure, M is the 
intercepting valve, which controls the passages m and n leading 
fiom chamber I to chamber G. The valve jV is the emergency 
exhaust valve, which controls the opening from chamber I to 
the emergency exhaust passage c. Th# reducing valve 0 
admits live steam at a reduced pressure into chamber G, and 
regulates the pressure there to the required amount during the 
time the locomotive is working simple. 

The smaller steam pipe E leads into a chamber L , which 
ends in another chamber that entirely surrounds one end 
of the intercepting-valve bush. The chamber e also surrounds 
the intercepting-valve bush, and opens into chamber G on the 
bottom side. The chamber c entirely surrounds the bushing 
of valve N, and connects with the emergency exhaust passage¬ 
way that leads directly into the exhaust passage F. The 
chamber G, as has already been stated, divides into two 
passages P and S, the former of which leads to the back end, 
and the latter to the front end, of the low-pressure steam chest. 
The exhaust passage F passes below chamber G and behind 
chamber 1 , and leads into the exhaust pipe P. The small 
pipe 6 leads to the operating valve in the cab. 

74. Intercepting Valve. —From the sectional view 
given in Fig. 36 (a), it will be seen that the intercepting valve 
consists of three parts, marked/, g , and h. The end i of part / 
is carefully finished, also a hole j is cut in the top of / and the 
parts/and g are connected by a rib k \ inch thick. The second 
part is cylindrical also, and forms a chamber g into which the 
ports marked a open. Two ribs at right angles to each other 
divide chamber g into four compartments, and each compart¬ 
ment is provided with a port, the ribs being broken away in 
the figure to show the ports. There is a circular opening v in 
the end w through which the reducing valve 0 works. The 




66 


COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 


§ ic 



third part of the intercepting 
valve forms a cylindrical 
chamber h having a number 
of ports marked d leading 
into it; also, it is connected 
with chamber g through the 
opening v. The second part 
g is fitted with two snap 
packing-rings r, and a water¬ 
packing groove s, while the 
port h has water-packing 
grooves s and a packing ring t. 
Small holes l permit steam to 
flow from chamber h back of 
the ring t , and thus press 
it firmly against the valve 
bushing during the time 
chamber h is filled with 
steam. Also, a small hole p 
connects chamber Q with the 
space back of the reducing 
valve 0, while chamber Q is 
connected with the atmos¬ 
phere through the drip pipe q. 
A piston T\ the rod of which 



Fig. 36. 













































§10 


COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES, 


67 


is keyed to the intercepting valve, as shown, operates in a 
cylinder filled with oil, and forms an oil dashpot that pre¬ 
vents the intercepting valve from slamming. As the piston 
T moves in either direction, it compresses the oil ahead of it, 
and thus forces the oil through the passage H and the plug 
valve J, into the other end of the cylinder. The rapidity 
with which the piston will move depends, of course, on 
how fast the oil can pass through the valve /; and the object 
of valve J, therefore, is to provide a means of regulating 
the movement of the piston T, and hence of the intercept¬ 
ing valve M. If the valve J is wide open, the movement 
of the intercepting valve will be too rapid, and the valve 
will slam on its seat; by turning the valve J gradually in the 
direction to close it, the movement of the intercepting valve 
will become slower and slower, and will entirely cease when 
the valve is fully closed. To allow the intercepting valve to 
move faster, therefore, the valve J should be opened a little 
wider; to make the movement slower, the valve J should be 
partly closed. View (6) is a sectional view of the oil dashpot, 
taken at right angles to that shown in (a). The plug valve J, 
it will be observed, must be turned with a wrench. The 
“feather” k extends the full length of the cylinder, and the 
piston T is cut out to receive it, so that the feather pre¬ 
vents the piston from turning in its cylinder; and since the 
stem of piston T is keyed to the intercepting valve by the 
key k, the valve is prevented from turning also. The oil 
cylinder is filled by removing the screw plug n ; it should 
alwa} 7 s be kept full of oil. 

75. Reducing Valve. —The reducing valve 0, Fig. 36, is 
free to move back and forth a distance of about f inch between 
pistons 3 and If. The valve is bored out to a neat fit for 
the piston 3 , which forms a dashpot that prevents slamming, 
while piston 4 acts as a guide for the valve. Two packing rings 
are provided to prevent the leakage of steam back of the valve, 
while the outlet p permits any steam that may leak by to escape 
to chamber Q and thence to the atmosphere through the drip 
pipe q. Atmospheric pressure, therefore, is always maintained 




68 


COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 


10 


back of the reducing valve. Steam pressure in chamber g acts 
on the entire face of the valve 0 being only an easy fit in 0), 
while the area exposed to the steam in chamber h is less than 
half as much; hence, when the pressure in chamber g is some¬ 
thing less than half the pressure in chamber h , it w r ill close 
the reducing valve. In other words, when the pressure in 
chamber g exceeds a certain percentage of that in chamber A, it 
will close the reducing valve; whereas, when it falls below that 
amount, the pressure in chamber h will open the reducing valve. 

76. Emergency Exhaust Valve. —The emergency 
exhaust valve, Fig. 37, really consists of tw r o valves N and K 
operated by the piston 5. The chamber x back of the piston 



Fig. 37. 


is connected, by means of a pipe 6 , to an operating valve con¬ 
veniently situated in the engine cab; the operating valve is 
very similar to those already described, only in place of being 
piped for steam to the boiler it is piped for air to the engineer’s 
brake valve. Sometimes, however, it is piped to both places, 
in which event either air or steam can be used to operate the 
emergency exhaust valve. 































































§10 COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 69 

When pressure is admitted to chamber x , piston 5 is pushed 
forwards, thus unseating the valve K ; but the valve N remains 
closed until the piston 5 strikes N, when it too is opened. The 
smaller valve K is provided, in order that the locomotive can 
be changed from compound to simple smoothly and without 
causing shock while working steam with the throttle in any 
position. It accomplishes this as follows: During the time the 
engine is working compound, the receiver is filled with steam 
at receiver pressure; now, if the large passage of valve N were 
suddenly opened to the exhaust, receiver pressure would quickly 
drop so low before the intercepting valve could move to simple 
position that the running gear would be subjected to severe 
stresses. If the small passage of valve K is opened to the 
exhaust for a few seconds before the large passage is opened, 
the receiver pressure will drop more gradually, and the inter¬ 
cepting valve will have moved to simple position and will have 
admitted live steam into the receiver, through the reversing 
valve, by the time the larger passage is fully open, so that the 
receiver pressure will not fluctuate much, and the engine can be 
changed to simple without any disturbance. The small holes 
9 and 10 prevent any accumulation of pressure in the chamber 
ahead of piston 5,- since 10 opens directly into the emergency 
exhaust passage c. _ 


OPERATION. 

77. Working Compound.— When this type of locomo¬ 
tive is starting as a compound, it first works live steam in both 
cylinders for a few revolutions of the drivers, and then auto¬ 
matically changes to a strictly compound locomotive as soon as 
the pressure in the receiver has been raised to the desired 
amount. The locomotive can be started compound by simply 
opening the throttle valve, the handle of the operating valve in 
the cab being left in compound position. This admits steam 
direct from the boiler to the high-pressure steam chest through 
the steam pipe D, Fig. 35, and to chamber L through the small 
steam pipe E. The steam in chamber L passes through port d 
into chamber g of the intercepting valve, and, on account of the 
greater area in the front end w', forces the intercepting valve to 



Hi 






























































































































































































































§10 


COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 


71 


the position shown in Fig. 38. In this position, the inter¬ 
cepting valve closes the passages m and n that lead from 
chamber I to chamber G; and, since the exhaust valve N is 
closed, the exhaust steam from the high-pressure cylinder 
banks up in the receiver as the locomotive moves forwards, and 
raises the pressure there. Also, in this position of the intercept¬ 
ing valve, live steam from chamber L passes through port d, 
reducing valve 0, ports 6, through chamber e into chamber 6r, 
whence it passes through the passages R and S into the two 
ends of the low-pressure steam chest, as indicated by the 
arrows. Both the high-pressure and the low-pressure cylinders, 
therefore, are operated for a time by live steam, although the 
pressure of the steam in the low-pressure cylinder is reduced 
by the reducing valve 0. By the time the drivers have made 
two or three revolutions, the exhaust steam from the high- 
pressure cylinder has raised the pressure in the receiver 
sufficiently to cause it to move the intercepting valve to com¬ 
pound position, as shown in Fig. 39. The intercepting valve 
remains in this position as long as the engine is working com¬ 
pound, for the following reasons: The pressure of the steam 
in the receiver on the faces u and u' balances, and hence 
produces no tendency to move the valve; the pressure of the 
steam from chamber L, acting on the faces w and w' of 
chamber <?, has a tendency to move the valve to simple 
position, but this tendency is overcome by the greater pressure 
of the steam in the receiver acting on the face v of cylinder /. 

While the intercepting yalve is in the compound position, it 
covers the ports b in its bushing; hence, no live steam can pass 
from chamber L to the low-pressure steam chest. The passages 
m and n from chamber /, however, are now open, so that the 
exhaust steam from the high-pressure cylinder is free to pass 
through the receiver into chamber /, and thence, through the 
passages m and n, chamber G , and passages R and S , into the 
low-pressure steam chest, where it forms the supply of steam 
that operates the low-pressure cylinder. ’ 

78. Working Simple.—When the engineer desires to 
start the locomotive as a simple engine, he first turns the 
















































































































































































































COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 


73 


§10 


handle of the emergency operating valve to the position marked 
simple, so as to admit pressure into chamber x, and then 
opens the throttle (Fig. 40). The pressure in chamber * 
forces open the emergency exhaust valves N and K, while, by 
admitting steam into chamber L, the intercepting valve is caused 
to move to simple position and close the passages m and n; 
hence, the exhaust steam from the high-pressure cylinder 
passes through the receiver into chamber i, and is then obliged 
to pass out, through the exhaust valve N and the emergency 
exhaust passage c, to the main exhaust passage F and the 
atmosphere, as indicated by the arrows. The walls of chamber I 
are broken away to show how the passage c leads into the main 
exhaust passage F. The low-pressure cylinder is supplied with 
live steam at a reduced pressure through the reducing valve, as 
indicated by the arrows. 

79. Changing From Compound to Simple. —At 
times, it is desirable to change the locomotive from compound 
to simple while working steam. To do this, the handle of the 
operating valve is merely moved to the position marked simple. 
This first causes the smaller exhaust valve K , and then the 
larger valve N, to open and reduce the pressure in the receiver 
gradually, until it is sufficiently reduced to operate the inter¬ 
cepting valve, thus converting the locomotive smoothly into a 
simple engine. 

80. Changing From Simple to Compound. —To 
change the locomotive from a simple to a compound loco¬ 
motive, the engineer simply moves the handle of the operating 
valve to the position marked compound. This removes the 
pressure from chamber x , and the spring 11 then forces the 
piston 5 to its forward position, closing the emergency exhaust 
valves. The steam from the high-pressure exhaust then raises 
the pressure in the receiver until it is sufficiently high to move 
the intercepting valve to compound position, when the loco¬ 
motive operates as a compound. 












































































































































































































































75 


§10 COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 


OPERATING. 

81. Working Compound.— To start the locomotive com¬ 
pound with a light train, it is simply necessary to move the 
handle of the operating valve to compound position, if not 
already there, place the reverse lever in the corner, open the 
cylinder cocks, and, lastly, open the throttle. In starting thus, 
live steam is admitted to both cylinders for a few moments 
(see Fig. 38), after which the intercepting valve automatically 
cuts off the supply to the low-pressure cylinder, and connects 
that cylinder with the receiver, from which it thereafter receives 
its supply. Gradually hook up the reverse lever a couple of 
notches at a time, as the speed increases, until the lever is in 
the proper running notch, and carry the throttle as wide open 
as circumstances will permit. 

82. Working Simple. —In starting on a grade or in 
starting heavy trains, the locomotive should be worked as a 
simple locomotive until the train is moving freely. To start a 
locomotive simple, move the handle of the operating valve to 
the position marked simple , drop the reverse lever into the 
corner, open the cylinder cocks, and then open the throttle. 
In this way, live steam will be worked in both cylinders (see 
Fig. 40) until the engineer converts the locomotive to com¬ 
pound. The locomotive should also be converted to a simple 
engine to start a heavy train, as there will then be less jerking, 
and the train will start more smoothly. It should be con¬ 
verted to compound, however, just as soon as possible after 
the train is moving freely. This is accomplished by simply 
turning the handle of the operating valve to compound 
position. After changing to compound, the reverse lever 
should be hooked up a few notches at a time until in the 
proper running notch. As with the other types of com¬ 
pounds, the running should be done with the reverse lever 
rather than with the throttle, and the Throttle should be 
carried as wide open as circumstances will permit; in other 
words, carry the reverse lever and the throttle where they 
will handle the train best. 


76 


COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 


§10 


BREAKDOWNS. 

83, Broken Main Rod: High-Pressure Side. —In case 
the rod on the high-pressure side breaks, take it down, block 
the crosshead securely, and clamp the valve on that side in the 
center of its seat, so as to cover both ports; then proceed, 
using the low-pressure side only. As soon as the throttle is 
opened, the steam in chamber L will force the reducing valve 
open, and live steam at a reduced pressure will be supplied 
direct to the low-pressure side. 

84, Broken Main Rod: Low-Pressure Side. —In the 
event of a rod breaking on this side, take it down, block 
the crosshead in the back end of the guides, clamp the valve 
in the center of its seat, and move the handle of the operating 
valve to simple position; proceed, using the high-pressure 
side only. In this way, the high-pressure side will act as a 
simple engine, the exhaust passing out through the emergency 
exhaust valve. 

85, Broken Valve Stem.— In the event of a valve stem 
breaking on either side, it will be necessary to disconnect the 
disabled side; hence, if a valve stem breaks, proceed exactly 
as though the main rod on that side had broken. 


PITTSBURG COMPOUND. 

DESCRIPTION. 

86. General Arrangement.—A cross-section of the 
cylinders and saddle of a Pittsburg compound, taken 
through the middle of the receiver YZ, is shown in Fig. 41, 
in which A and B are the high- and low-pressure cylinders, 
respectively, and C is the intercepting-valve chamber. In this 
type of compound there is but one steam pipe Z); it connects 
with a passageway back of chamber I (indicated by dotted lines) 
that divides into two branches at G, these branches leading to 
opposite ends of the steam chest. The exhaust passage E from 



§10 


77 


COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 


the high-pressure cylinder leads to the under side of the inter¬ 
cepting valve in C, while directly above is the chamber I that 
connects with the end Z of the receiver. A passage K (indi¬ 
cated by dotted lines), back of the chamber I, connects one end 
of the intercepting valve with the exhaust pipe P. This is the 
emergency exhaust port through which the high-pressure steam 
exhausts during the time the engine is working simple. The 
end Y of the receiver connects with a steam passage S that 



Fig. 41. 


divides into two branches, which lead to opposite ends of the 
high-pressure steam chest. The exhaust passage H (indicated 
by dotted lines) from the low-pressure cylinder leads directly to 
the exhaust. When this locomotive is working as a compound, 
therefore, the exhaust steam from the high-pressure cylinder 
first passes through the intercepting valve, and thence, through 
chamber I and the receiver, to the low-pressure cylinder; the 
exhaust from the latter passes through the exhaust passage H 




































COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 


§10 



directly to the atmosphere. In working simple, the exhaust 
from the high-pressure cylinder passes directly to the atmos¬ 
phere through the emergency exhaust port K. 


87. Arrangement of the Valves and Passages. 
A section of the high-pressure cylinder saddle, taken on the 
line xy, Fig. 41, showing the arrangement of the different 


























































































10 


COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 


79 


valves and passages, is given in Fig. 42. In the figure, M is 
the intercepting valve, and 0 is the reducing valve. The 
chamber I connects with the end Z of the receiver. The pas¬ 
sageway F connects with the steam pipe D and divides into two 
branches (6r), as explained in connection with Fig. 41; hence, 
steam flows from the passage F directly into the two ends of 
the high-pressure steam chest. The passage K is the emer¬ 
gency exhaust passage, and leads into the main exhaust passage, 
as already explained. A short passageway connects chamber c, 
back of the reducing valve, with the steam passage G shown 
in Fig. 41; hence, cavity c is supplied with steam at the same 
pressure as the high-pressure steam chest. 

88. Intercepting Valve. —This valve is in the form of a 
piston valve, and is so designed that it separates the ports «, 
leading into chamber I, from the ports b , leading into the 
emergency exhaust passage K, although it can be made to 
connect the high-pressure exhaust port E with either port a or 
port b by simply changing its position. When the valve is in 
its backward position, as in Fig. 42, the cavity of the valve 
connects the exhaust port E from the high-pressure cylinder 
with the emergency exhaust port K, while, at the same time, 
the valve cuts off the ports a leading into the receiver. When 
in its forward position, it covers the ports b and connects port E 
with ports a. In order that the valve may be properly bal¬ 
anced, a passage m is made through it lengthwise, thus insuring 
the same pressure on both ends of the valve. 

89. Operation of Intercepting Valve.— The means 
employed to operate the intercepting valve are clearly indicated 
in Fig. 43. The valve spindle d is connected, by means of the 
lever L and rod R , to a reversing mechanism N called the 
reversing cylinder. The object of this mechanism is to 
relieve the engineer of the necessity of converting the engine 
from simple to compound, or vice versa, by hand. A hand 
arrangement H, however, is provided in case of accident to the 
reversing cylinder. The steam for operating the reversing 
cylinder is supplied through the pipe e , and the supply is 
































































































COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 


81 


§10 

controlled by a valve operated by means of the rod n. This rod 
is so connected to the reach rod r that it operates the reversing 
cylinder in such a way as to convert the locomotive into a 
simple locomotive if the reverse lever is placed in either corner, 
or into a compound if the reverse lever is hooked up one or more 
notches from the corner. A stop-cock is placed in the steam 
pipe, so that, when desirable, steam can be cut off entirely 
from the reversing cylinder. Sometimes the mechanism for 
operating the reversing-cylinder valve is connected to the 
reverse lever instead of to the reach rod as described. 

90. Reducing Valve. —The reducing valve 0 is shown 
open in Fig. 42, and closed in Fig. 43. It is provided with 
a ground-joint seat at A, Fig. 42, two packing rings r, and a 
spring s, the tension of the latter being adjusted by the nuts n. 
The tension of this spring should be only sufficient to prevent 
the valve from rattling during the time the engine is running 
with steam shut off, and the valve should be easily moved by the 
hand against the action of the spring. The area of the valve 0, 
acted on by the steam in the chamber x, during the time the 
engine is working simple, is so much greater than that acted on 
by the steam in chamber c that the valve is closed when the 
pressure in chamber x increases to a certain proportion (some¬ 
thing less than a half) of that in chamber c. In other words, 
the reducing valve maintains a pressure in chamber x something 
less than half that in chamber c, thereby equalizing the total 
forces acting on the high-pressure and low-pressure pistons. 


OPERATION. 

91. Working Simple. —In this style of compound, the 
intercepting valve is wholly non-automatic, and it must be 
moved from simple to compound or from compound to simple 
position by means of the reversing cylinder N or the hand 
arrangement H, Fig. 43. So long as the reversing cylinder Vis 
operative, the act of placing the reverse lever in either corner will 
cause the intercepting valve to be moved to‘simple position 
(the handle H in its forward position); whereas moving the 




82 


COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 


§10 


reverse lever one or more notches from the corner causes 
the intercepting valve to be moved to compound position, 
the handle H then going to its backward position. 

With the intercepting valve in simple position, Fig. 42, the 
emergency exhaust port K is connected with the high-pressure 
exhaust passage E through the cavity of the valve M and the 
port 6, and communication between the receiver I and the 
port K or E is cut off by the valve. When the throttle is 
opened, steam flows from the boiler to the high-pressure steam 
chest, and also to chamber c. The steam in the steam chest 
is used in the high-pressure cylinder and is then exhausted 
directly to the atmosphere through the exhaust port E , the 
emergency exhaust port K , and the exhaust pipe P, as indi¬ 
cated by the arrows. The steam in chamber c opens the 
reducing valve 0 and flows through chamber x and the port 
a into the receiver (as indicated by arrows), and thence 
to the low-pressure steam chest; after being used in the low- 
pressure cylinder, it is discharged to the atmosphere through 
the exhaust pipe P. The pressure of the live steam in the 
receiver is regulated to the proper amount by the reducing 
valve 0. 

Sometimes, as, for instance, when switching, it is desirable 
to work the engine simple at different points of cut-off; that is, 
with the reverse lever in notches other than the corner notch. 
To accomplish this, first place the reverse lever in the comer, 
so that the intercepting valve will be moved to simple position, 
and then close the stop-cock in the reversing cylinder supply 
pipe e, so as to cut off the supply of steam to the reversing 
cylinder; the intercepting valve will then remain in simple 
position, regardless of the position of the reverse lever. Open¬ 
ing the stop-cock in the supply pipe will again make the 
reversing cylinder operative. 

92. Working: Compound.— When the intercepting valve 
is moved to compound position, Fig. 44, the port b leading to 
the emergency exhaust passage K is covered by the valve, and 
the high-pressure exhaust port E is connected with the receiver 
through the cavity of the valve and the ports a. Also, the 





§10 COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 83 

reducing valve 0 is held closed. Therefore, when the throttle 
is open with the intercepting valve in this position, the exhaust 



steam from the high-pressure cylinder passes through the inter¬ 
cepting valve and into the receiver, as indicated by the arrows, 


Fig. 44. 































































































































84 


COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 


§10 


thence passing through the receiver into the low-pressure 
cylinder, and out to the atmosphere through the exhaust 
passage H (Fig. 41) and the exhaust pipe. 


OPERATING. 

93. Working Compound.— To start a train with a 
Pittsburg compound, the locomotive should always be con¬ 
verted into a simple locomotive until the train is fairly under 
way, when it should be changed to compound. To do this, 
place the lever in the corner (which converts the locomotive to 
simple), open the cylinder cocks, and then open the throttle. 
By the time the train has moved three or four car lengths, hook 
the lever up a notch or two (which converts the locomotive to 
compound), and, as the speed increases, continue to hook it up 
until it is in the proper running notch. No attempt should be 
made to run with the lever notched up higher than the fourth 
notch, since doing so will cause increased loss through con¬ 
densation in the cylinders. The throttle should be carried as 
wide open as is possible under the circumstances. 

94. Working Simple. —At times, especially when switch¬ 
ing, it is desirable to work the locomotive simple, and yet be 
able to carry the reverse lever in different notches; in other 
words, it is desirable at times to use the locomotive strictly as 
a simple locomotive. This may be done by first moving the 
reverse lever to the corner and then closing the stop-cock in the 
steam pipe to the reversing cylinder; the locomotive can then 
be operated as a simple locomotive as long as desired, and with 
the reverse lever in any notch. The locomotive should always 
be changed to simple when drifting with steam shut off; or, if 
not convenient to do so, the throttle should be opened a 
“crack’’ so as to admit just enough steam into the cylinders 
to prevent the formation of a vacuum. 

95. Changing From Compound to Simple. —Some¬ 
times when climbing grades, it is found necessary to convert 
the locomotive from compound to simple to avoid being stalled. 




§10 


COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 


85 


At such times, do not make the change unless it is strictly 
necessary and the speed has decreased to less than 6 miles an 
hour, and change back to compound again at the earliest 
moment possible. Close the throttle somewhat just before 
changing from compound to simple, since otherwise the 
increased cylinder power is liable to cause slipping before 
the throttle can be closed sufficiently to prevent it. 

96. Care of Locomotive. —The high-pressure cylinder 
requires a great deal more oil than the low-pressure cylinder; 
in fact, the low-pressure cylinder should only receive 1 drop 
to ever} 7 5 or 6 drops for the high-pressure cylinder. Fill the 
reducing-valve oil cup each trip, and oil the back end of the 
intercepting valve at least once a week. The operating mechan¬ 
ism of this compound is so constructed that it should convert 
the locomotive to simple by placing the reverse lever in the 
corner, and to compound by moving the lever one or two 
notches from the corner; if it does not do this, report the facts 
at once. 


BREAKDOWNS. 

97. Broken Main Rod: High-Pressure Side. —If 
the rod on the high-pressure side breaks, take it down, block 
the crosshead securely, place the steam valve of that side on the 
center of its seat and clamp it there, move the intercepting 
valve to simple position, and close the stop-cock so as to cut 
out the reversing cylinder, thus enabling the locomotive to be 
operated as a strictly simple engine; proceed, using the low- 
pressure cylinder only. Live steam will thus be supplied to 
the low-pressure cylinder through the reducing valve and the 
receiver. 


98. Broken Main Rod: Low-Pressure Side. —In the 
event of this rod breaking, move the reverse lever to the corner 
to convert the locomotive to a simple engine, and close the 
stop-cock in the steam pipe to the reversing cylinder, so that 
the locomotive can be worked as a simple engine. Take down 
the broken rod, place a piece of wood under each side of the 




86 


COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 


§10 


reducing-valve spring s, Fig. 42, and tighten up the nuts n until 
the spring pinches the wood sufficiently hard to hold the 
reducing valve shut against the pressure of the steam in 
chamber c; proceed, using the high-pressure cylinder only. 
By thus clamping the reducing valve shut, steam is prevented 
from entering the receiver; hence, the low-pressure steam valve 
need not be clamped on the center of its seat. 

99. Broken Valve Stem.—In the event of a valve stem 
breaking, proceed exactly as you would were the main rod on 
that side to break. 
























A 


* 








































STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 


(1) What is potential energy ? 

(2) How many degrees are there between the freezing and 
boiling points of a Fahrenheit thermometer? 

(3) When is steam considered wet, and when dry? 

(4) Explain, briefly, the diagrams in Fig. 6. 

(5) Why are pedestals provided with wedges and shoes? 

(6) What is force? 

(7) Can kinetic energy be transformed into potential energy, 
or potential into kinetic energy ? 

(8) What is absolute temperature? 

(9) Explain the difference in appearance of wet, dry, and 
superheated steam. 

(10) When is an engine on the dead center? 

(11) Explain the duty of the equalizer R , Fig. 16. 

(12) What is work? 

(13) Can the quantity of heat a body contains be determined 
from its temperature? 

(14) If an engine is fitted with retainers and they are kept 
in service while the engine descends a very long down grade, 
what will be the result? Explain fully. 

(15) AVhat is wiredrawn steam? 

(16) Explain the difference between eight-wheeled, mogul, 
ten- wheeled, consolidation, twelve-wheeled, and decapod loco¬ 
motives, and give the service for which each is best adapted. 

(17) How do the equalizing levers maintain the load on the 
drivers equal ? 



4 


STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS 


(18) What is the unit of work called, and how much work 
does it represent ? 

(19) How is temperature measured? 

(20) What is sensible heat; latent heat? 

(21) Referring to Fig. 3, what must be done to make the 
piston move back and forth in the cylinder? 

(22) Explain the difference between the rigid and the total 
wheel base of a locomotive. 

(23) How is a locomotive boiler attached to the frames? 

(24) How can the rate at which work is done be determined? 

(25) What particular temperature does the boiling point on 
a thermometer mark ? 

(26) What is a unit of heat, or heat unit? 

(27) Describe how, in Fig. 4, the piston is made to move 
back and forth. 

(28) Wlmt is j;he,difference in the temperature of the steam, 
when the *»IShCTpn^sure is 140 and 200 pounds per square 
inch ? 

(29) What is the duty of the oil cellar in a driving box? 

(30) What is the unit of power? Explain fully. 

(31) What particular temperature does the freezing point 
on a thermometer mark? 

(32) What is steam ? 

(33) Explain how the steam engine in Fig. 5 works. 

(34) What are the pedestals? 

(35) How would you proceed to set up the wedges? 

(36) What is kinetic energy ? 




Steam, Cylinders, and Valve Gears. 

(PART 2.) 

EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 

(1) Why is a locomotive provided with crossheads and 
guides ? 

(2) Explain the use of the tumbling shaft, and state the 
reason for providing it with a counterbalance spring. 

(3) (a) Explain what the inside and outside lap of a valve 
is. (6) Why is a valve given outside lap? (c) What is the 
clearance of a valve? 

(4) How would you determine whether the valve rod and 
stem were of proper length? 

(5) What is an eccentric? 

(6) State how to find the port marks. 

(7) Why is one eccentric called the go-ahead , and the 
other the hack-up ? 

(8) State clearly the relative positions of the eccentrics 
to the main pin, drawing a diagram for that purpose if 
thought desirable. 

(9) Explain how to measure the lead for the 10-inch 
notch, either for forward or backward motion. 

(10) Why are boilers provided with steam domes? 

(11) How would you proceed to key up the main rods 
of an engine? 

For notice of copyright, see page immediately following the title page. 

§8 


i 



2 


STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. §8 


(12) Explain why moving the reverse lever from one 
corner to the other reverses the motion of the engine. 

(13) How does the Allen valve differ from the ordinary 
D slide valve, and what advantages are obtained by the use 
of the Allen valve? 

(14) How can you determine whether the eccentric rods 
are of proper length? 

(15) Explain how steam passes from the boiler into the 
steam chests. 

(16) ,How would you proceed to key up the side rods of 
an engine ? 

(17) (a) In what position would you place the reverse 
lever, to give the valve its least travel? (6) In what position 
of the reverse lever will the valve have its greatest travel ? 

(18) What advantages are obtained by using the double- 
ported slide valve? 

(19) What are travel marks , and how can you find them? 

(20) In double-poppet throttle valves, why are the disks 
a and b (Fig. 2) made of unequal diameters? 

(21) Explain the difference between a direct and an indirect 
valve. 

(22) (a) If you move the reverse lever toward the middle 
notch, what effect will it have on the cut-off? (6) If you 
move it toward the corner, what effect will it have ? Explain, 
in each case. 

(23) Why are slide valves balanced? 

(24) Explain how to determine the point of cut-off for the 
6-inch notch. 

(25) What advantages has the Pitkin throttle valve over 
the ordinary double-poppet valve? 




§8 STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. 


3 


(26) What is the throw of an eccentric? 

(27) Why is a cylinder counterbored ? 

(28) Referring to Fig. 52, why is the hole e drilled through 
the valve ? 

(29) If the cut-off occurs later in one cylinder than in 
the other, how can this be remedied? 

(30) How do the lap and lead of the valve affect the posi¬ 
tion of the eccentric? 

(31) Describe briefly the general features of a metallic 
rod-packing. 

(32) What is the effect of giving a valve (a) inside lap, 
(6) outside lap, or ( c ) clearance? 

(33) Why are locomotive steam chests provided with 
relief valves? 

(34) What is the effect of leaky steam pipes, and how 
would you locate the leak? 

(35) Name the two duties of the link. 

(36) Explain the following terms: admission, cut-off, 
release, and compression; and state at what parts of the 
valve stroke these events take place. 

(37) Which is the more nearly balanced, a piston valve 
with narrow or with wide packing rings, and why ? 

(38) What are the steam and exhaust passages in the 
cylinder saddle for? 

(39) Explain the terms link arc and radius of link. 

(40) Describe briefly a method of balancing a slide valve. 

(41) Before setting the valves of an engine, what precau¬ 
tions should be observed? 



4 STEAM, CYLINDERS, AND VALVE GEARS. §8 


(42) In Fig. 12, what is the duty of the steam ports a and 5, 
and whence do the ports c, x , and y lead ? 

(43) When is it necessary to provide a locomotive with a 
rocker ? 

(44) Explain what the lead of a valve is. 

(45) Describe an accurate method of placing a locomotive 
on the dead center. 

(46) How are pistons made to work steam-tight in the 
cylinders ? 



Locomotive Management. 


EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 

(1) What precautions should be taken when a bearing is 
discovered warming up ? 

(2) If. after the ordinary precautions have been taken, the 
bearing continues to heat, would you deem it advisable to 
use water on it? 

(3) How should a locomotive be inspected? 

(4) Give five examples of how to book defects discovered 
during inspection. 

(5) In case a disconnected engine is being towed, how fast 
can it be run with safety? 

(6) (a) What are the common causes of the main crank- 
pin heating? (6) If it becomes so hot that oil will not stay 
in the cup, what should be done? 

(7) What would you do in case the rod brasses get so 
hot as to melt the babbit ? 

(8) What is the cause and effect of friction? 

(9) How does oil, grease, and graphite make a bearing 
run cool? 

(10) What kind of oil gives the best results in lubricating 
metallic packing, and what is the best method of applying it ? 

(11) What should you do in case of a hot eccentric? 

For noiicr of copyright, soe Pcgc tmwediaUly following tke title pjgc. 

19 



2 


LOCOMOTIVE MANAGEMENT. 


§9 


(12) Should water ever be used to cool a hot eccentric? 
Give reasons. 

(13) What will cause metallic packing to blow? 

(14) What is meant (a) by the flashing point of an oil? 
(5) by the burning point of an oil? (c) At what temper¬ 
atures will engine oil and cylinder oil flash? 

(15) How can you best determine whether a leak is in the 
throttle or in the dry pipe? 

(16) What kind of waste is best for packing boxes, and how 
should it be prepared for use ? 

(17) Why should waste never be allowed to hang on the 
outside when packing boxes? 

(18) If a collision is liable to occur on a railway crossing 
and cannot be avoided, what should the engineer of the train 
occupying the crossing do in order to reduce the effects of the 
collision as much as possible? 

(19) What are the most common causes of pounds in an 
engine, and how can they be located? 

(20) In the event of metallic packing failing on the road, 
how would you proceed to remedy the trouble? 

(21) What are the most common causes of an engine 
blowing and how can the blows be located ? 

(22) What are tne best methods of putting (a) a canton- 
flannel wick in a headlight? (5) a felt wick in a headlight? 

(23) How should a headlight reflector be cleaned? 

(24) What are the duties of an engineer before attaching 
his engine to the train? 

(25) What will cause an engine to go lame? 

(26) What is the most economical way of handling an 
engine, the speed and weight of the train being considered ? 



§9 


LOCOMOTIVE MANAGEMENT. 


3 


(27) What course should be pursued when an engine is 
off the track ? 

(28) How should sand be used under different conditions 
of service? 

(29) On what points is the weight carried on (a) an eight¬ 
wheeled engine? (6) a mogul engine? 

(30) What precaution should be observed when running 
an engine during cold weather? 






BREAKDOWNS. 


EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 

(1) What is the most important thing to do in the event 
of a breakdown? 

(2) What should you do (a) if the piston rod breaks or 
bends? (6) if the valve stem breaks? 

(3) (a) Should a tire or an axle break on the front 
driver of an eight-wheeled engine, how would you block up? 
(6) How, if the back tire or axle breaks? 

(4) Explain in detail how to take down (a) a main rod; 
(6) a side rod; (c) a valve rod. 

(5) When a side rod is taken down on one side, why 
must its mate also be taken down? 

(6) What should be done when the front cylinder head 
breaks ? 

(7) What should be done when the back cylinder head 
breaks ? 

(8) Should the tire or axle break on the trailer wheel of 
an Atlantic type engine, how should you block up? 

(9) If the trailer spring or spring hanger of an Atlantic 
type engine breaks, how should you block up? 

(10) (a) Explain a method of blocking a crosshead. 
(6) How can you secure the valve stem so as to hold the 
valve in mid-position ? 

(11) How should you disconnect an eight-wheeled engine 
for a broken main crankpin? 


For notice of copyright, see page immediately following the title Page. 





6 


BREAKDOWNS. 


(12) How should you disconnect in the event of (a) a 
top guide bar breaking? (6) a crosshead of an eight-wheeled 
engine breaking? 


(13) How should you block up in case a front driving 
spring or spring hanger of an eight-wheeled engine breaks? 

(14) How should you block up in case the back driving 
spring or spring hanger of an eight-wheeled engine breaks? 

(15) What should you do if an equalizer of an eight¬ 
wheeled engine breaks? 

(16) Explain how to proceed in the event of (a) a broken 
reverse-lever reach rod; (6) a broken link hanger, saddle pin, 
or tumbling-shaft arm. 

(17) How should you proceed in the event of (a) a 
broken top rocker-arm? ( b ) a broken bottom rocker-arm? 

(18) What is the best method to pursue when the throttle 
becomes (a) disconnected and open? (6) disconnected and 
closed ? 

(19) How should a mogul or consolidation engine be 
blocked up if the front tire or axle breaks? 

(20) How should a mogul or consolidation engine be 
blocked up if the middle tire or axle breaks? 

(21) How should a mogul or consolidation engine be 
blocked up if the back tire or axle breaks? 

(22) How should you proceed in the event of the break¬ 
ing of (a) a forward-motion eccentric strap or rod ? (6) a back- 
motion eccentric strap or rod ? 

(23) Give your opinion as to the quickest way an eccen¬ 
tric can be reset on the road. 

(24) If the pop-valve or whistle is blown out or broken 
off close to the dome, what is the best course to pursue? 










9 


BREAKDOWNS. 


7 


(25) If the blow-off cock is blown out or broken off, how 
should you proceed? 

(26) In case the truck equalizer on a mogul or consoli¬ 
dation engine breaks, how should you block up? 

(27) If the intermediate equalizer on a mogul or consoli¬ 
dation engine breaks, how would you proceed to block up? 

(28) How should you set a right back-up eccentric? 

(29) If both eccentrics on a side slip, how should you 
proceed ? 

(30) Should (a) the top frame rail, (6) the bottom rail 
between drivers, (c) the pedestal brace or bolt, or (d) the 
frame between the front driving box and cylinder break, 
what methods should be pursued? 

(31) How should you block up in the event of the 
front pin or “Aleck” bolt in the truck of a mogul or con¬ 
solidation engine breaking? 

(32) What is the usual cause of the steam chest breaking, 
and how can its breaking be prevented? 

(33) Explain how you should proceed in the event of 
an eccentric strap or blade breaking on (a) a front eccentric; 
(6) a back eccentric. 

(34) If (a) a driving box, or brass, or (6) a wedge bolt 
breaks, what should be done so as to put the engine in 
condition to run? 

(35) Describe how you would block up in the event of 
a front spring or hanger breaking on a mogul or consolida¬ 
tion engine. 

(36) How should you block up in the event of a back 
spring or hanger breaking on a mogul or consolidation engine? 

(37) If a valve yoke on either side of an engine is broken, 
how can you locate and remedy the trouble ? 




8 BREAKDOWNS. §9 

(38) If a four-wheeled engine-truck axle or wheel breaks 
off, how should you block up? 

(39) How should you block for a broken axle on the 
tender truck ? 

(40) If a spring hanger on a four-wheeled engine truck 
broke, how would you block up? 

(41) If the center casting of a four-wheeled engine truck 
broke, what would you do? 

(42) If the piston-rod or valve-rod gland breaks, what 
should you do? 

(43) If a stud or valve-gland lug breaks, how should you 
make temporary repairs? 

(44) How should you chain up for a broken tender-coupler 
casting so as to pull the train? 

(45) If a wheel or axle on a pony truck is broken, what 
should be done? 

(46) Give the best methods of disconnecting an engine with 
a broken valve. 

(47) How would you proceed in the event of a broken 
valve seat? 

(48) What is the best method of handling a broken steam 
chest so that you can proceed under steam? 

(49) In case the cross-spring on a Brooks consolidation 
engine breaks, how should the engine be blocked up? 





Compound Locomotives. 


Note.—I n describing the construction or working of the various 
details of compound locomotives, when answering the following ques¬ 
tions, the student may refer to the illustrations in the proper section of 
the text-, making use of the reference letters and numbers there given; 
all his replies, however, should be in his own language, and not be 
merely copies from the text. 

(1) Explain the operation of the Vauclain compound 
during both a forward and a backward stroke of the piston. 

(2) Explain the operation of the reducing valve of the 
Richmond compound. 

(3) What would you do in the event of a main rod on a 
Richmond compound breaking? 

(4) How great a tension should the reducing-valve springs, 
Fig. 42, of a Pittsburg compound have, and how is the tension 
of this spring regulated? 

(5) What is a compound engine? 

(6) Explain the duty of the starting valve of the Vauclain 
compound, and describe its general arrangement. 

(7) Explain the operation of the Richmond compound 
when it is started as a compound locomotive. 

(8) In the Schenectady compound, what is the duty of the 
oil dashpot, and how does it operate? 

(9) Explain the operation of the Pittsburg compound when 
working simple. 

(10) (a) How can the high-pressure cylinder of a com¬ 
pound be distinguished from the low-pressure cylinder? 
(6) Why is one cylinder called the high-pressure cylinder, 

while the other is called the low-pressure cylinder? 

§io 



2 


COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 


§10 


(11) Explain the operation of the starting valve of the 
Vauclain compound when its handle is in the positions 7, 2 y 
and 3 , Fig. 14. 

(12) Explain the operation of a Richmond compound when 
it is started as a simple locomotive. 

(13) How is the rapidity of movement of the oil-dashpot 
piston regulated in a Schenectady compound? 

(14) Sometimes it is desirable to work a Pittsburg com¬ 
pound as a simple locomotive while carrying the reverse lever 
in notches other than the corner notch; how can this be done? 

(15) What is a simple engine? 

(16) Referring to Fig. 9, (a) why is a relief valve provided 
at n? (5) what is the duty of the relief valves m, m? (c) what 
is the duty of the valves p that are screwed into the heads of 
the low-pressure cylinder? 

(17) Explain the duty of the over-pass valves in the Rich¬ 
mond compound, and state how they operate. 

(18) Explain the operation of a Schenectady compound 
when starting compound. 

(19) Explain the operation of the Pittsburg locomotive 
when working compound. 

(20) State the difference between a simple and a com¬ 
pound engine. 

(21) Explain how the cylinder-cock lever of the Vauclain 
compound should be handled under the different conditions 
of running. 

(22) State the duty of the automatic air-discharge valve of 
the Richmond compound, and explain how it operates. 

(23) Explain the operation of a Schenectady compound 
when starting simple. 

(24) Explain clearly how you would start a train and 
bring it up to speed with a Pittsburg compound. 




§10 


COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 


3 


(25) At slow speed on a heavy grade, a compound will 
keep a train moving where a simple locomotive will slip and 
stall; explain why it is able to do this. 

(26) How should the reverse lever of a Vauclain com¬ 
pound be handled to obtain the best results ? 

(27) State how a Richmond compound should be handled 
in starting a train, both under ordinary conditions and when 
on a grade. 

(28) Explain how a Schenectady compound is changed 
from compound to simple, and again changed from simple 
to compound. 

(29) Explain clearly how you would work a Pittsburg 
compound as a simple locomotive while switching. 

(30) Compounds effect a considerable saving in fuel over 
simple engines; to what is the greater economy of the com¬ 
pounds due? 

(31) (a) Explain in detail how you would start a train 
with a Vauclain compound and bring it up to speed. (6) How 
would you handle a Vauclain compound while drifting down 
grade? (c) How would you handle a Vauclain compound 
while on a heavy up grade? 

(32) How should the reverse lever and throttle of a 
Richmond compound be handled to obtain the best results? 

(33) Explain in detail how you would start a train and 
bring it up to speed with a Schenectady compound, working 
it as a compound locomotive. 

(34) What precautions should you observe with a Pittsburg 
compound while drifting with the throttle closed ? 

(35) What advantages has the milder exhaust of the 
compound over the stronger exhaust of the simple locomotive? 

(36) What would you do in the event of the breaking of 
(a) a high-pressure piston rod, or, (6) a low-pressure piston 
rod, of a Vauclain compound ? 


4 COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. § 10 

(37) Why is it especially important that the cylinder cocks 
of compounds be open while starting a train ? 

(38) Explain in detail how you would start a train and 
bring it up to speed with a Schenectady compound, working 
it as a simple locomotive. 

(39) When and how should you convert a Pittsburg com¬ 
pound from compound to simple while working the locomotive? 

(40) If properly handled, about how much coal will a com¬ 
pound locomotive save over the amount required by a simple 
locomotive in doing the same work? 

(41) Explain the operation of the Baldwin two-cylinder 
compound. 

(42) What precautions should be observed with a Rich¬ 
mond compound while drifting? 

(43) How should you proceed in the event of the main rod 
of a Schenectady compound breaking on (a) the high-pressure 
side? (ft) the low-pressure side? 

(44) What would you do in the event of the main rod on 
the high-pressure side of a Pittsburg compound breaking? 

(45) What is a cross-compound locomotive? 

(46) What would you do in the event of the main rod of a 
Baldwin two-cylinder compound breaking? 

(47) Explain how the cylinder-lubricator feeds should be 
set for a Richmond compound, and give reasons for so 
setting them. 

(48) Explain how the intercepting valve of a Pittsburg 
compound is operated. 

(49) What would you do in the event of the main rod on 
the low-pressure side of a Pittsburg compound breaking? 

(50) (a) What is the duty of the intercepting valve of the 
Richmond compound, and why is it provided with the piston p? 
(ft) What is the duty of the reducing valve? 





INDEX 


A. Sec. Page. 

Absolute zero. 7 11 

Adjusting the cut-off. 8 84 

Admission. 8 52 

“ 8 57 

Allen valve . 8 62 

American balanced valve. 8 69 

Angle of advance. 8 54 

Approaching stations... 9 34 

Atlantic type engine . 7 39 

“ type engine . 9 119 

“ type engine, Broken axle 

of trailing wheel on. 9 122 

“ type engine, Broken front 

axle on. 9 121 

“ type engine, Broken front 

spring on. 9 123 

“ type engine, Broken main 

axle on . 9 122 

“ type engine, Broken main 

driving spring on . 9 122 

“ type engine, Broken side 

rod or front pin on. 9 119 • 

“ type engine, Broken tire 

on front driver of . 9 119 

“ type engine. Broken tire 

on main driver of. 9 119 

“ type engine, Broken tire 

on trailer wheel of. 9 121 

Attaching boiler to frame. 7 45 

B. 

Back-up eccentric. 8 46 

Balanced valves. 8 66 

“ valves, Necessity of bal¬ 


ancing . 8 66 

Baldwin compound (two cylinder) 10 10 

“ compound (two cylinder) 10 34 

“ compound, Broken main 

rod, high-pressure side 

of. 10 41 

“ compound, Broken main 

rod, low-pressure side 

of. 10 42 

“ compound, Broken valve 

stem of. 10 42 


Sec. Page. 


Baldwin compound, Failure of in¬ 
tercepting, or of redu¬ 
cing, valve of. 10 42 

“ compound, Operating 

valve of . 10 39 

“ compound, Operation of 10 40 

“ compound, Reducing 

valve of . 10 36 

“ compound, (Vauclain) . 10 9 

“ compound, Blows of. 10 31 

“ compound, Broken high- 

pressure piston rod on... 10 29 

“ compound, Broken low- 

pressure piston rod on... 10 30 

“ compound, Broken main 

rod on.:. 10 29 

“ compound, Broken valve 

stem on . 10 30 

“ compound, Crosshead of 10 12 

“ compound, Cylinder-cock 

lever on . 10 25 

“ compound, Handling a ... 10 27 

“ compound, Operating a... 10 25 

“ compound, Operation of a 10 17 

“ compound, Other break¬ 
downs of. 10 30 

“ compound, Piston valves 

of . 10 13 

“ compound, Relief valves 

for. 10 22 

“ compound, Reverse lever 

of . 10 26 

“ compound, Starting valve 

of. 10 20 

“ compound, Steam chest 

of . 10 16 

“ compound, Valve bushing 

of. 10 16 

“ compound, Water valves 

for . 10 24 

Bent piston rod. 9 81 

Bissell truck. 7 57 

Blocking the crosshead. 9 61 

Blow in piston valve . 9 49 

“ off cock blown out . 9 90 


Vll 



















































r 


viii 


INDEX. 


Sec. Page. 


Blows . 9 

“ . 10 

“ Baldwin compound. 10 

“ Baldwin two-cylinder com¬ 
pound . 10 

“ Pittsburg compound . 10 

“ Richmond compound. 10 

“ Schenectady compound . 10 

Boiling point . 7 

Breakdowns. 9 

Broken axle on four-wheeled engine 

truck .. 9 

“ back end of main-rod 

strap. 9 

“ back motion eccentric strap 

or rod. 9 

“ crosshead . 9 

“ cross-spring on Brooks con¬ 
solidation engine. 9 

“ cylinder head..».. 9 

“ driving box or brass. 9 

“ false valve seat .. 9 

“ for ward-mot ion eccentric 

strap or rod . 9 

“ frame . 9 

“ front driving spring. 9 

“ front-end main-rod strap .... 9 

“ front pin of truck equal¬ 
izer . 9 

“ guide .. 9 

“ link hanger. 9 

“ long-truck equalizer. 9 

“ main crankpin. 9 

“ or burned off grate bars. 9 

“ piston rod. 9 

“ piston stuffingbox stud and 

lug of gland. 9 

“ reverse lever . 9 

“ “ lever reach-rod. 9 

“ saddle pin. 9 

“ second driving spring.9 

“ steam chest. 9 

(i *< u 9 

“ “ “ and cylinder.... 9 

“ tender coupler casting. 9 

“ “ truck axle. 9 

“ “ “ wheel. 9 

“ top or bottom rocker-arm.... 9 

“ tumbling-shaft arm. 9 

“ valve. 9 

“ “ seat. 9 

“ “ stem stuffingbox 

gland . 9 

“ valve yoke. 9 

“ wedge bolt. 9 

Burning point of oils. 9 


47 

42 

31 

42 

78 

58 

69 

10 

57 

94 

84 

67 

85 

151 
82 
92 

78 

67 

91 
149 

84 

152 

85 
65 

152 

83 

90 

82 

81 

85 

65 

65 
151 

50 

79 
83 
96 
96 

95 

66 
65 
78 
75 

74 

72 

92 
11 


C. Sec. Page. 

Care of headlights.. 9 20 

“ “ locomotives . 9 4 

Cause of friction. 9 5 

Changing point of cut-off. 8 47 

Clearance. 8 51 

Climbing grades. 9 27 

Cold weather. Precautions when 

disconnected in. 9 88 

Columbia type of engine. 7 39 

Compound, Advantages of the. 10 2 

“ . Cost of running re¬ 
pairs of . 10 8 

“ engine. 10 1 

“ locomotives . 10 1 

Compounds, Economy of. 10 4 

“ “ “ .. 10 7 

“ “ “ fuel in.... 10 5 

“ Milder exhaust of. 10 7 

“ Non-receiver. 10 9 

“ Prominent types of..... 10 9 

“ Rates of combustion 

of. 10 6 

Compression.-. 8 53 

Conservation of energy .. 7 8 

Consolidation engine. 7 37 

“ “ 9 142 

Consolidation engine, Broken axle 

on second driving wheel of. 9 147 

Consolidation engine, Broken back 

driving axle on . 9 149 

Consolidation engine, Broken back 

section of side rod on. 9 143 

Consolidation engine, Broken front 

driving axle on . 9 145 

Consolidation engine, Broken front 

section of side rod on. 9 142 

Consolidation engine, Broken mid¬ 
dle section of side rod on. 9 143 

Consolidation engine, Broken third 

or main axle on. 9 148 

Consolidation engine, Broken tire 

on back driver of. 9 145 

Consolidation engine, Broken tire 

on front driving wheel of. 9 143 

Consolidation engine, Broken tire 

on second driver of. 9 143 

Consolidation engine, Broken tire 

on third, or main, driver of.. 9 145 

Connecting-rods. 8 31 

Counterbalance. 7 49 

Crosshead and guides. 8 27 

Crossheads, Types of. 8 28 

Cross-over compound . 10 10 

Cut-off. 8 52 

“ “ . 8 55 

“ “ Adjusting the. 8 84 
























































































INDEX. 


ix 


See. Page. 


Sec. Page. 

Cut-off, Changing the point of. 

8 

47 

Eight-wheeled engine, Broken 



“ “ Determining the point of.... 

8 

83 

equalizer of. 

9 

106 

Cylinder. 

8 

17 

“ “ engine,Broken front 



“ and steam chest. 

8 

17 

axle of. 

9 

102 

“ condensation . 

10 

5 

“ “ engine, Broken front 



“ groaning. 

9 

47 

driving spring or 



“ saddle . 

8 

12 

hanger of. 

9 

102 




“ “ engine, Broken side 



XJ • 



rod or back pin of 

9 

97 

Damaged front end. 

9 

55 

“ “ engine, Broken tire 



“ smokestack. 

9 

55 

on back driver of 

9 

101 

Dead center. 

7 

35 

“ “ engine. Broken tire 



“ “ Finding the . 

8 

76 

on front driver of 

9 

97 

Decapod . 

7 

37 

Elementary engine . 

7 

31 

Determining the length of valve 



Energy . 

7 

5 

rod . 

8 

79 

Engine trucks.. 

7 

54 

“ “ point of cut-off..... 

8 

83 

Equalizing lever . 

7 

47 

“ whethe-r eccentric 



Exhaust out of square . 

9 

51 

rods are of proper 



F. 



length. 

8 

81 




Difference between compound and 



Failure of ash-pan. 

9 

52 

simple locomotives . 

10 

3 

“ “ spark-arresting devices ... 

9 

52 

Disconnecting rods. 

9 

58 

Finding dead center . 

8 

76 

“ solid-end main rod 

9 

60 

Flanged tires. 

7 

53 

“ strap-end main rod 

9 

59 

Flashing point of oils. 

9 

10 


9 

58 

Fluid friction. 

9 

5 

Dome . 

8 

3 

Follower plate . 

8 

20 

Donble-expansion engine. 

10 

1 

Foot-pound. 

7 

3 

“ ported valve . 

8 

64 

Force . 

7 

1 

Driving box. 

7 

53 

Forward-motion eccentric . 

8 

46 

“ gear . 

8 

19 

Four-cylinder compound . 

10 

9 

“ wheels. 

7 

48 

“ wheel truck . 

7 

55 

Dry pipe, Leaky. 

9 

44 

Frames . 

7 

41 

" steam. 

7 

19 

Freezing.point . 

7 

10 

Dunbar packing.. 

8 

22 

Friction. 

9 

4 

Duties of engineer before attaching 



“ Causes of. 

9 

5 

engine to train . 

9 

24 

“ Effects of. 

9 

4 




“ Fluid. 

9 

7 

E. 



“ Kinds of. 

9 

5 

Eccentric and strap. 

8 

38 

Rolling . 

9 

5 

“ Construction of. 

8 

39 

“ Sliding. 

9 

5 

“ * Function of. 

8 

38 

“ Starting .. 

9 

6 

“ strap .. 

8 

41 

Front end, Damaged . 

9 

55 

“ throw-off. 

8 

40 

Full gear backward. 

8 

.47 

Eccentricity. 

8 

40 

“ “ forward. 

. 8 

47 

Eccentrics. 

8 

37 

G. 



Economv in the use of steam . . 

9 

27 




Effects of heat . 

7 

13 

Go-ahead eccentric . 

8 

46 

“ “ lap and lead . 

8 

60 

Guides, Types of . 

8 

28 

Eight-wheeled engine . 

7 

36 

H. 



“ “ engine. 

9 

97 




“ “ engine,Broken back 



Harthan’s metallic packing . 

8 

26 

axle of .. 

9 

102 

Headlights, Care of . 

9 

20 

“ . “ engine,Broken back 



Heat defined . 

7 

8 

driving spring or 



“ Effects and measurement of... 

7 

8 

hanger on . 

9 

104 

“ Effects of . 

7 

13 

















































































V 


INDEX. 


Sec. Page. 


Sec. 


Heat, Measurement of. 7 

“ Unit of. 7 

High-pressure cylinder. 10 


15 

15 

1 


Metallic rod packing .. 8 

Mid-gear . 8 

Mogul engine. 7 


tt a 44 

10 

12 

44 

4 4 


9 

Hole knocked in boiler. 

9 

88 

(I 

44 

Broken axle on back 


Horsepower. 

7 

4 



driver of. 

9 

Hot bearings. 

9 

39 

44 

44 

Broken axle on front 


“ “ Use of water on . 

9 

39 



driver of. 

9 

“ boxes, Packing, on the road .... 

9 

14 

14 

44 

Broken axle on main 


I. 





driver of. 

9 




44 

44 

Broken back section 


Injectors fail on road . 

9 

42 



of side rod on. 

9 

Inside lap. 

8 

51 

44 

4 4 

Broken front pin of 


“ “ Effect of changing the ... 

8 

58 



truck equalizer on 

9 

Inspection of locomotives. 

9 

1 

44 

44 

Broken front section 


Intercepting valve, Richmond com- 





of side rod on. 

9 

pound. 

10 

10 

44 

44 

Broken front spring 


J. 





or hanger on. 

9 

Jerome metallic packing . 

8 

26 

• 44 

44 

Broken intermediate 


K. 





equalizer of. 

9 

Keying up side rods. 

8 

35 

44 

44 

Broken long equal- 


Kinetic energy . 

7 

5 



izer.. 

y 






Broken main spring 

9 

L« 



4 4 

44 

Broken tire on back 


Lap . 

8 

51 



driver of. 

9 

Latent heat. 

7 

15 

44 

44 

Broken tire on front 


Lead . 

8 

59 



driver of. 

9 

“ Measuring the. 

8 

80 

44 

44 

Broken tire on mid- 


“ Trying the. 

8 

80 



die driver of. 

9 

Leaky dry pipe . 

9 

44 

Multiangular packing. 

8 

“ steam pipes. 

8 

11 





“ throttle. 

9 

44 



N T . 


Link. 

8 

42 

Necessary tools for locomotives. 

9 

“ arc. 

8 

44 

Northwestern type engine.. 

9 

“ hanger . 

8 

37 

44 


type engine, Broken 


“ motion. 

8 

36 



cross-equalizer of... 

9 

Live and dead wedges. 

7 

45 

44 


type engine, Broken 


Locomotive management. 

9 

1 



front driving axle of 

9 

“ Types of . 

7 

36 

44 


type engine, Broken 


Locomotives. 

7 

26 



front driving spring 


Low-pressure cylinder . 

10 

1 



of.. 

9 

“ “ cylinder, Baldwin 



44 


type engine, Broken 


compound .. 

10 

12 



intermediate equal- 


Lubricants . 

9 

9 



izer of. 

9 

Lubrication. 

9 

8 

44 


type engine, Broken 


M. 





main axle of . 

9 

Main rods. 

8 

33 

44 


type engine, Broken 


“ “ Keving up. 

8 

35 



main driving spring 


Making stops . 

9 

35 



of. 

9 

Management of locomotives. 

9 

24 

44 


type engine, Broken 


Marking port marks. 

8 

78 



side rod or front pin 

9 

Measurement of temperature. 

7 

9 

44 


type engine, Broken 


Measuring the lead . 

8 

80 



tire on front driver 


Metallic packing, Care of. 

9 

18 



of. 

9 

“ “ Failure of . 

__9 

19 

44 


type engine, Broken 


“ “ Worn . 

9 

18 



tire on main driver 

9 


111 


108 


113 


110 


108 


128 


133 


128 


125 


125 


125 























































































INDEX. 


. xi 


Sec. Page. 


Northwestern type engine, Broken 

tire on trailer wheel 9 125 

“ type engine, Broken 

trailer axle. 9 128 

“ type engine, Broken 

trailer equalizer .... 9 132 

“ type engine, Broken 

trailer spring. 9 128 

“ type engine, Broken 

trailer-spring hack 

hanger . 9 131 

“ type engine, Broken 

trailer-spring front 
hanger . 9 131 

O. 

Off the track. 9 53 


Oiling.-. 9 11 

Outside lap. 8 51 

»t * < . 8 58 


“ “ Effect of changing the 8 58 

P. 

Packing boxes . 9 12 

•* “ Material used in.... 9 12 

“ cab fixtures. 9 17 

“ hot boxes on the road. 9 14 

“ piston rods and valve 

stems . 9 

Petroleum oils. 9 10 

Piston, Old-style. 8 20 

“ rod, Packing a. 9 16 


“ valve, Effect of wide pack- 


ing rings in. 

8 

73 

“ “ Operation of. 

8 

72 

“ valves. 

8 

71 

Pistons, Modern types of. 

8 

22 

Pitkin throttle valve. 

8 

5 

Pittsburg compound (Colvin). 

10 

11 

“ compound, Arrangement 



of valves and passages.. 

10 

71 

“ compound, Blows in. 

10 

78 

“ compound, Broken main 



rod, high-pressure side 



of. 

10 

77 

“ compound, Broken main 



rod, low-pressure side of 

10 

77 

“ compound, Broken valve 



stem of. 

10 

78 

“ compound, Care of. 

10 

77 

“ compound, Changing to 



simple . 

10 

76 

“ compound, Description of 

10 

70 

“ compound, Intercepting 



valve of . 

10 

72 

“ compound, Reducing 



valve of. 

10 

73 


Sec. Page. 


Pittsburg compound, Reversing 

cylinder of. 10 72 

“ compound, Working. 10 75 

“ compound working simple 10 73 

“ “ “ “ 10 76 

Points on which an engine is carried 9 55 

Pony truck . 7 57 

Pop-valve or whistle blown out.. 9 89 

Port marks, Marking. 8 78 

Potential energy.. 7 6 

Pounds . 9 45 

Power . 7 4 

Properties of saturated steam. 7 20 

R. 

Radius of link.. 8 44 

Rate of doing work. j 7 4 

Receiver, Richmond compound. 10 10 

Reducing the force of collision. 9 54 

Relation between heat and work.... 7 15 

Relative position of eccentrics and 

main pin . 8 61 

Release .. 8 03 

“ 8 56 

Removing side rods. 9 62 

Reporting work. 9 3 

Reverse lever. 8 37 

Reversing lever caught at short 

cut-off.-. 9 02 

Reversing the engine. 8 46 

Rhode Island compound. 10 11 

“ “ “ . 10 78 

“ “ compound, Arrange¬ 

ment of valves and 

passages of. 10 79 

“ “ compound, Broken 

main rod, high- 
pressure side of.... 10 83 


compound, Broken 
main rod, low- 
pressure side of... 10 83 

compound, Broken 


valve stem of. 10 83 

compound, Changing 
from compound to 

simple . 10 82 

compound, Changing 
from simple to 

compound. 10 82 

compound, Descrip¬ 
tion of. 10 78 

compound, Emer¬ 
gency exhaust 
valve of. 10 80 


compound, Inter¬ 
cepting valve of.... 10 79 



























































INDEX 


xii 

Sec. 


Rhode Island compound, opera¬ 
ting as a com¬ 
pound . 10 

“ compound, opera¬ 

ting as a simple 

engine .. 10 

“ compound reducing 

valve .... 10 

“ compound working 

compound. 10 

“ compound working 

simple. 10 

Richardson balanced valve. 8 

“ relief valve. 8 

Richmond compound (Mellin). 10 

“ “ . 10 

“ compound, Arrange¬ 

ment of intercepting 

valve of. 10 

compound, Automatic 
air discharge-valve of 10 

“ compound, Blows. 10 

“ compound, Broken 

main rod, high-pres¬ 
sure side of. 10 

“ compound, Broken 

main rod, low-pres¬ 
sure side of. 10 

compound, Broken 

valve stem of. 10 

compound, Description 

of . 10 

“ compound, Details of 

intercepting valve of 10 

“ compound, Details of 

reducing valve of.... 10 

“ compound, Drifting .... 10 

compound, Oiling the 
cylinders and valves 

of. 10 

compound, Operating 

valve of. 10 

compound, operating 

as a compound. 10 

compound, operating 

as a simple. 10 

compound, Operation 

• of. 10 

compound, Operation 
of reducing valve of 10 
compound, Overpass 

valves of. 10 

compound, Starting a 

train with a. 10 

compound,Use of Oper¬ 
ating valve of.. 10 


Sec. Page. 

Richmond compound, Use of re¬ 
verse lever and 


throttle. 10 56 

Rigid wheel base . 7 40 

Rocker . 8 37 

“ 8 44 

Rod packing, Metallic . 8 23 

Rods, Keying up . 8 35 

Rolling friction . 9 5 

Running engines in cold weather 9 37 

S. 

Saturated steam. 7 17 

Schenectady compound (Pitkin)... 10 10 


“ . 10 60 

compound, Arrange¬ 
ment of valves and 

passages of..... 10 61 

compound, Blows of 10 69 

compound, Broken 
main rod, high- 


pressure side of. 10 69 

“ compound, Broken 

main rod, low-pres¬ 
sure side of. 10 69 

“ compound, Broken 

valve stem of. 10 69 

“ compound, Changing 

from compound to 

simple. io 67 

compound, Changing 
from simple to com¬ 
pound . io 57 

“ compound, Descrip¬ 
tion of.. io 60 

“ compound, Emer¬ 

gency exhaust valve 

of.'. 10 64 

compound, Intercept¬ 
ing valve of. io 62 

compound, Operation 

as a compound. 10 65 

compound, Reducing 

valve of. io 64 

compound working 

compound . io 65 

compound working 

simple. io 67 

Sensible heat. 7 50 

Setting slide valves... 8 75 

“ up wedges. 7 54 

Side rods . 8 33 

“ “ Keying up of. 8 35 

“ “ Taking down . 9 62 

Single-expansion engine . 10 1 

Slide valve . 7 29 


Page. 

82 

83 

80 

81 

81 

67 

68 

10 

42 

44 

55 

58 

58 

58 

58 

42 

46 

47 

57 

57 

51 

49 

50 

49 

48 

52 

55 

56 



























































INDEX. 


xm 


Sec. Page. 


Sec. Page. 

Slide valve . 

8 

50 

Ten-wheeled engine, Broken front 



“ “ engine, Diagrams of a 

7 

32 

section of side rod of 

9 

135 

“ “ throttle . 

8 

53 

“ “ engine, Broken front 



“ valves, Setting of. 

8 

75 

tire of. 

9 

135 

Sliding friction . 

9 

5 

“ “ engine, Broken main 



Slipped eccentric, Locating a. 

9 

68 

driving spring of. 

9 

139 

“ “ Setting a. 

9 

69 

“ “ engine, Broken main 



“ “ What to do in 



tire of. 

9 

135 

case of a. 

9 

68 

“ “ engine, Broken spring 



“ eccentrics . 

9 

68 

or spring hanger on 



Smokestack, Damaged. 

9 

55 

truck of. 

9 

140 

Spring gear, Arrangement of the.... 

7 

46 

“ “ engine, Broken truck 



Starting friction . 

9 

6 

equalizer of. 

9 

142 

“ trains . 

9 

25 

Thermometer. 

7 

9 

Steam. 

7 

16 

Throttle disconnected and closed 

9 

87 

“ and exhaust passages. 

8 

21 

“ disconnected and open.... 

9 

86 

“ “ steam engines. 

7 

16 

“ Double-poppet .. 

8 

4 

“ chest . 

7 

29 

“ Leaky. 

9 

44 

it it 

8 

17 

“ lever . 

8 

8 

“ cylinder .. 

7 

28 

“ valve . 

8 

3 

“ “ and valve gears. 

7 

1 

“ “ Pitkin ... 

8 

5 

“ cylinders “ “ “ . 

8 

1 

“ “ Regrinding a. 

8 

10 

“ “ Operation of. 

7 

30 

“ “ Vogt . 

8 

8 

* “ Effect of pressure on. 

7 

21 

Throw of an eccentric. 

8 

40 

“ engine . 

7 

27 

Tires. 

7 

53 

“ Formation of. 

7 

16 

Total wheel base . 

7 

40 

“ lap . 

8 

51 

Transformation of energy. 

7 

7 

“ pipes.. 

8 

10 

Trying the lead. 

8 

80 

“ “ Leaky . 

8 

11 

Tumbling shaft . 

8 

37 

“ piston . 

8 

20 

<( it 

8 

45 

“ tables. 

7 

21 

Twelve-wheeled, or mastodon, 



“ “ Examples on the use 



engine. 

7 

37 

of. 

7 

25 

Two-cvlinder compound . 

10 

9 

“ Work done by . 

7 

27 

Two-wheel truck . 

7 

57 

Superheated steam . 

7 

18 

Types of crossheads. 

8 

28 




IT. 



T. 



Unit of work. 

7 

3 

Taking light engine over the road 

9 

38 

Use of sand . 

9 

36 

“ up play in wedges . 

7 

44 

V. 



Temperature . 

7 

8 

Valve gear . 

8 

36 

Ten-wheeled engine. 

7 

37 

“ “ Operation of. 

8 

46 

“ “ engine. 

9 

135 

“ rod, Determining the length 



“ “ engine, Broken axle 



of a. 

8 

79 

on back driver of 

9 

137 

“ stem, Packing a . 

9 

16 

“ “ engine, Broken axle 



Viscosity .. 

9 

8 

on front driver of 

9 

136 

Vogt throttle valve . 

8 

8 

“ “ engine, Broken axle 



W. 



on main driver of 

9 

137 

Wedges and shoes. 

7 

44 

“ “ engine, Broken back 



“ Setting up . 

7 

54 

driving spring of 

9 

140 

Wet steam . 

7 

19 

“ “ engine, Broken back 



Wheel base . 

7 

40 

section of side rod of 

9 

135 

“ centers. . 

7 

4Q 

“ “ engine, Broken back 



Wide-firebox locomotive . 

7 

39 

tire of . 

9 

136 

Wiredrawn steam . 

7 

20 

“ “ engine, Broken front 



Work . 

7 

1 

driving spring of. 

9 

139 

“ and energy . 

7 

1 























































































1 











r 


. 


























































































































